Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Catholic Monarchs: Foundations of Spanish Power

Foreign Policy Achievements

• Established alliances with other European kingdoms, such as the Holy Roman Empire, controlled by the Habsburg dynasty.
• Carefully planned matrimonial policies, marrying their sons and daughters to the princes and princesses of Portugal, the Habsburg Empire, and England.
• Conquered land in North Africa.
• Recovered the Kingdom of Naples after the war against France.
• Significant geographical expeditions led to the discovery of America in 1492.

Habsburg Spain: A Golden Age and Its Challenges

Key Monarchs of the 16th Century

The 16th century in Spain saw the reign of the Habsburg dynasty monarchs: Carlos I (son of Felipe I and Juana I) and Felipe II.

Carlos I (Charles V): Emperor

World War I: 1914

• June 28: Archduke Franz Ferdinand, prince to the Austria-Hungary throne, is assassinated in Sarajevo by a Serbian named Gavrilo Princip.
• July 23: Austria-Hungary makes demands on Serbia for retribution. Serbia does not meet demands.
• July 28: Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. Russia begins mobilizing its troops.
• August 1: Germany declares war on Russia.
• August 3: Germany declares war on France as part of the Schlieffen Plan.
• August 4: Germany invades Belgium. Britain declares war on Germany.
• August 23 to 30: The Battle of Tannenberg is fought between Germany and Russia. The Germans defeat the Russian Second Army.
• September 5 to 12: The advancing German army is stopped before Paris by the British and French at the First Battle

The Bay of Pigs Invasion

The Bay of Pigs Invasion was a failed 1961 attempt by the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to overthrow Fidel Castro using Cuban exiles. The operation was a significant failure that damaged the international reputation of the United States and strengthened the communist cause in Cuba.

The Cuban Missile Crisis

In October 1962, the Kennedy administration faced its most serious foreign policy challenge. Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev sought to strengthen ties with Cuba and defend the island from the United States. Starting in May 1960, the Soviet Union began shipping ballistic missiles and technicians to Cuba, believing President Kennedy would not react. After consulting with his advisers, Kennedy blockaded... Continue reading "The Bay of Pigs, Cuban Missile Crisis, and Batista's Rule" »

             3. THE THIRTY YEARS WAR

Causes:  

1. This war was caused because of the cinflict between Catholics and protestants in the Holy Roman Empire
2. Gradually it developed into a more general conflict for Europe political dominance

The main problems of the war and the different participants:

1. Protestants uprising in Bohemia: Some protestants nobles expelled the Cathilics and appointed a protestant kink in Bohemia. The emperor who was king of Bohemia too fought against them.
2. Two sides were formed: 1. The emperor had the support of the German Catholics and the king os Spain and Portugal 2. The protestants allied with German but they were defeated
3. Swedish participation: 1. After the Surrunder of Breda the German Catholic took the protestants

The Rise of Totalitarianism

After World War I, democratic regimes were formed in many countries, but these democracies were fragile. The crash of 1929 caused people to lose confidence in democracy, leading new parties to gain followers. On the left, communist parties supported by workers and peasants led several uprisings. Meanwhile, the middle and upper classes feared a communist revolution, favoring the birth of fascism and dictatorial regimes to avoid it.

In this atmosphere, a new wave of dictatorships emerged in the 1930s. In these totalitarian regimes, a single party controlled all state powers and aspired to control every aspect of society.

Defining Fascism

Defining a concept as complex as fascism is challenging. The German historian Nolte... Continue reading "Totalitarianism and the Rise of Fascist Italy" »

(h2)Which is the only directly elected organ of the EU? When were the last elections? And the next ones? (h3)The EU parliament, elected every 5 years, 2014 last elections, 2019 next(h2)Which four institutions of the EU play the most important role in the decision-making process? (h3)The European Parliament, European Commission, European Council and the Council of the European Union (Ministers)(h2)What does art. 5 of the Washington Treaty outline? When was it invoked in the past? When could it be invoked in the future? (h3)Art. 5 of Washington Treaty outlines the alliance of members when it comes to defense: The principle of collective security; It was invoked after 9/11. The Washington Treaty is the founding Treaty of NATO. NATO has taken collective... Continue reading "Key Institutions and Treaties in International Relations" »

Early America (35,000 Years Ago)

• A 1,500 km land bridge connected Asia with America.
• Migratory groups moved from Alaska to what is now the U.S.A.
• Key groups: Hohokam, Adenans, Hopewellians, and Anasazi.
• They built earth mounds in the shapes of pyramids, birds, or serpents.
• Life was closely tied to the land; society was clan-oriented.
• These groups were eventually replaced by the Hopi and Zuni.

European Exploration

• Norse: The first Europeans to arrive in North America; Erik the Red established a settlement in Greenland in 985.
• Christopher Columbus: Landed in the Caribbean Sea in 1492.
• John Cabot: Provided the basis for British claims to America.
• Spanish Explorers: Juan Ponce de León (Florida), Hernando de Soto (Florida, Mississippi), Francisco Vázquez

Pope Benedict XV (1914–1922)

Historical Background

Benedict XV's pontificate was largely overshadowed by World War I, which he labeled “the suicide of civilized Europe,” along with its political, social, and humanitarian consequences. Having failed with diplomatic initiatives to end the war, Benedict XV focused on humanitarian efforts to lessen its impact, such as:

• Attending to prisoners of war
• Facilitating the exchange of wounded soldiers
• Organizing food deliveries to needy populations in Europe

One of his final concerns was the emerging persecution of the Catholic Church in Soviet Russia and the resulting famine after the revolution.

Main Encyclicals

During his seven-year pontificate, Benedict XV wrote twelve encyclicals. Key documents include:... Continue reading "Pope Benedict XV: World War I and Papal Diplomacy" »

Long-Term Causes of World War I (WWI)

1. Militarism: The build-up of armed forces and the preparation for war.

   Example: Germany significantly increased her armed forces, ostensibly to defend herself against other European countries.

2. Alliances: Agreements between countries to defend or fight together.

   Example: Many European countries made agreements or promises to help each other if a third country invaded them.

3. Imperialism: The belief of a country in building up an empire and controlling less powerful nations.

   Example: Following unification, Germany sought to expand her Empire and global influence.

4. Nationalism: Intense pride in one's country, often leading people to desire self-governance or strong national defense.

   Example: Many countries in Europe were