Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Biology

1. Bioelements O biogenic elements.

Are the chemical elements that are part of living matter. We found about 70 chemical elements forming part of living matter, these are in various proportions and not all are present in all living things. In accordance with its wealth divide:
Bioelements-primary.
Bioelements-side.

• Bioelements Primary: These are found in greater proportion, are present in all biomolecules. Represents around 95% by weight of living matter. They are the C, O, H, N and to a lesser extent P and S.
  These items have been selected among all those who constitute the Earth's crust to form living matter, although except oxygen are the most abundant, possessing features among which are the following:

1-have incomplete outer electron... Continue reading "Bioelements" »

GMO - Genetically modified organisms


Benefits and Risks
Advantages
Key benefits of biotechnology are:
·
Superior performance. By GMO crop yield increases, giving more food for fewer resources, reducing crop losses as well as environmental factors

• Reduced pesticide Whenever a GMO is modified to resist a particular pest is helping to reduce pesticide use associated with it that often cause widespread environmental damage and health. ^[

• Improved nutrition can be reached by introducing vitamins and protein on food and reduce the allergens and natural toxins. You can also try to grow in extreme conditions as auxiliaries to the countries that have less food available.

Improves the development of new materiales.La application of biotechnology... Continue reading "Advantages and disadvantages of biotechnology" »

POSITIONS OF PLACEMENT OF PATIENTS
Supine or dorsal
In the anatomical position, the patient remains with his hands on either side of the body, arms extended, adducted thumbs and hands of pronation.
The head is held erect and the feet pointing forward. The knees and fingers in slight flexion
The patient is lying on your back with legs extended, attached to the upper and lower body together.
Uses:
· Examination of the chest, abdomen, upper and lower limbs.
· Postoperative.
And Accommodation in bed
· Position change.
· Palpation of the breasts.
Contraindications:
· Elders.
· Lung disease.
Sick of long-term ·
Prone position or ventral


Also called prone. In this position the patient lies on his abdomen and chest, his head... Continue reading "Positions" »

Corn
Kingdom Plantae
Traqueofita Division
Angiosperm Class
Subclass Monocotyledoneae
Cereals Order
Family Poaceae (Gramineae)
Scientific name (genus and species) Zea mays

Bean

Kingdom:	Plantae
Division:	Magnoliophyta
Class:	Magnoliopsida
Subclass:	Rosidae
Order:	Fabales
Family:	Fabaceae
Subfamily:	Faboideae
Tribe:	Phaseoleae
Subtribe:

... Continue reading "Example of classification of animals: kingdom, family, class, order and scientific names" »

Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy is the branch of biological science that studies the structure, shape, size, location, and relationship of different parts of the human body. It explains how organs, tissues, bones, and systems are arranged. The term is derived from Greek words meaning “to cut apart,” as early studies involved dissecting bodies to understand internal structures.

Branches of Anatomy

• Gross Anatomy: Study of body structures visible to the naked eye (e.g., heart, lungs, bones).
• Microscopic Anatomy: Study of structures requiring a microscope, including cells and tissues.
• Developmental Anatomy: Study of changes in body structure during growth.

Importance of Anatomy

• Helps in understanding body structure.
• Assists in the diagnosis and treatment

... Continue reading "Human Anatomy and Physiology: Essential Concepts and Systems" »

Anatomy and Physiology: Definitions and Scope

Anatomy is the branch of biological science that deals with the study of the structure of the human body and the relationship between its different parts. It includes the study of organs, tissues, bones, muscles, and body systems. The scope of anatomy covers gross anatomy, microscopic anatomy, developmental anatomy, regional anatomy, and systemic anatomy.

Physiology is the branch of science that studies the normal functions of the human body and how its organs, tissues, and systems work together to maintain life. It explains processes such as respiration, circulation, digestion, excretion, and nerve conduction. The scope of physiology includes cell physiology, neurophysiology, cardiovascular physiology,... Continue reading "Comprehensive Study of Human Biological Systems" »

The Human Reproductive System

The reproductive system is one of the most vital systems in the human body. It involves the process of producing a new individual or offspring identical to the parents. This system facilitates reproduction through the formation and transfer of gametes, fertilization, the formation of a zygote, and embryogenesis.

Process Flowchart

• Male → Gametogenesis (Spermatogenesis) → Sperm
• Female → Gametogenesis (Oogenesis) → Ovum
• Sperm + Ovum (Fusion) → Fertilization → Zygote → Implantation → Embryogenesis → Child

Gestation: This involves the embryonic development of the fetus.
Parturition: This involves the delivery of the fetus.

Male Reproductive System

Anatomy and Functions

1. Scrotum and a pair of testes
2. Accessory ducts
3. Glands
4. Penis

... Continue reading "Biological Basis of Human Reproduction" »

Genetics

Protein Synthesis

• Step 1: Transcription (Nucleus)
  • The DNA double helix unzips down the middle.
  • An enzyme called RNA polymerase reads one strand of the DNA.
  • It builds a matching strand of mRNA by pairing complementary bases.
  • Note: Wherever DNA has T, mRNA uses U instead.
  • The mRNA strand peels off and leaves the nucleus.
• Step 2: Translation (Ribosome)
  • The mRNA travels to a ribosome.
  • The ribosome reads the mRNA 3 bases at a time; each group of 3 is called a codon.
  • Each codon matches to a specific amino acid (use the codon chart to identify).
  • A special RNA called tRNA carries the correct amino acid and drops it off.
  • The amino acids link together one by one into a chain.
  • That chain folds up into a protein.

Punnett Square Basics

• Genotype: TT : Tt : tt
• Phenotype:

... Continue reading "Biology Essentials: Genetics, Evolution, and Cell Division" »

Human Digestive System

Two Types of Digestion

• Mechanical digestion: The physical breakdown of food.
  • Examples: Chewing in the mouth, churning in the stomach, and segmentation in the small intestine.
• Chemical digestion: Breaking down molecules with enzymes and acids.
  • Examples: Salivary amylase in the mouth, pepsin in the stomach, and pancreatic enzymes in the small intestine.

The GI Tract Path

Mouth → Pharynx → Esophagus → Stomach → Small Intestine → Large Intestine → Rectum → Anus.

Accessory Organs and Their Roles

• Salivary glands: Produce saliva.
• Liver: Produces bile.
• Gallbladder: Stores and concentrates bile.
• Pancreas: Produces digestive enzymes and bicarbonate.

Digestive Juices and Functions

• Saliva: Moistens food and initiates carbohydrate

... Continue reading "Human Digestive System Functions and Anatomy" »

Human Reproductive System Anatomy

Male Reproductive System Components

• Testes: Produce sperm and testosterone.
• Epididymis: Sperm mature and are stored here.
• Ductus (vas) deferens: Carries sperm from the epididymis toward the urethra.
• Urethra: A tube that carries semen out of the body.
• Penis: Deposits semen and also allows urine to leave the body.
• Accessory glands:
  • Seminal vesicles: Add fructose-rich fluid for energy.
  • Prostate gland: Adds alkaline fluid to help protect sperm.
  • Bulbourethral glands: Add lubricating mucus and help neutralize the urethra.

The Pathway of Sperm

Testes → epididymis → vas deferens → ejaculatory duct → urethra → penis → out of body.

Sperm Structure and Fertilization Role

• Head: Contains the nucleus and acrosome.
• Acrosome:

... Continue reading "Male and Female Reproductive Organs and Functions" »