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Causes of European Expansion in the Age of Discovery

Political and Economic Causes

Political causes

Following the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, the Christian kingdoms continued their expansion by taking control of new territories. For the monarchs who were establishing their authority, the conquest of territories was an opportunity to acquire gold and silver to finance their rule as well as gain personal glory. It was a way to demonstrate their power over the medieval institutions.

Economic consequences

The fall of Constantinople to the Turks (1453) had closed the traditional European trade route that brought supplies of spices from Asia. Therefore, to bring them to Europe it was necessary to use a new route to India and China, in order to... Continue reading "Causes of European Expansion in the Age of Discovery" »

The Scramble for Africa

The Scramble for Africa was the occupation, division, and colonization of African territory by European powers during the period of New Imperialism, between 1881 and 1914. It is also called the Partition of Africa and by some the Conquest of Africa. In 1870, only 10 percent of Africa was under formal European control; by 1914 it had increased to almost 90 percent of the continent, with only Ethiopia (Abyssinia), the Dervish state (a portion of present-day Somalia) and Liberia still being independent. There were multiple motivations including the quest for national prestige, tensions between pairs of European powers, religious missionary zeal and internal African native politics.

The Berlin Conference

The Berlin Conference... Continue reading "The Scramble for Africa: European Colonization and the Berlin Conference" »

Decline of the Spanish Habsburgs (1598-1700)

Reign of Felipe III (1598-1621)

A trade authority was founded in Sevilla to regulate trade with America, impose taxes on goods entering Spain, and control emigration. Unlike his energetic father, Felipe III delegated political decisions to a royal favorite, the Duke of Lerma, who prioritized personal interests over effective governance. This led to financial problems that severely impacted the Spanish economy. The Duke of Lerma's most disastrous decision was the expulsion of the Moriscos in 1609. This hard-working minority group's departure further damaged the already weakened economy. In foreign affairs, a period of relative peace followed the continuous wars of the previous century. Peace was signed... Continue reading "Decline of the Spanish Habsburgs: From Felipe III to Carlos II" »

• The closing years of Franco's rule were marked by violence and unrest.

• Conflict arose between those advocating for reforms and liberalization of the regime, and those with a “bunker” mentality who staunchly resisted any changes.
• An economic recession in the late 1960s, coupled with labor agitation, strikes, and rebellion in universities, prompted Franco to proclaim a state of exception in March 1969.

• The remaining years of Franco's rule saw periods of intensified opposition, to which the government responded with harshly repressive measures.

• The most virulent opposition to the Franco regime came from the revolutionary Basque nationalist group, ETA. They employed terrorist tactics and assassinations. ETA's most significant act was the assassination

The Caliphate of Córdoba and the Emirate of Córdoba

The Caliphate of Córdoba was an Andalusian Muslim state with its capital in Córdoba, proclaimed by Abderramán III. The Emirate of Córdoba was an independent emirate with its capital also in Córdoba.

The Black Death

The Black Death has been one of the most devastating pandemics in human history. It affected Europe in the 14th century and peaked between 1347 and 1353, killing more than a third of the European population. The Black Death had an extremely high mortality in Europe because people lived closely together without any type of hygiene in the most affected areas. The plague spread from Italy throughout Europe, affecting territories of present-day France, Spain, England, Britain, Germany,... Continue reading "The Caliphate of Córdoba and the Impact of the Black Death" »

Consequences of World War II

• The United Nations was created to avoid conflicts and to maintain peace.
• The United States and the Soviet Union went from being allies to enemies, leading to a military and nuclear build-up.
• The United States and the United Kingdom were capitalist; the Soviet Union was communist.
• The two superpowers each wanted to be the world leader.
• Decolonization in Africa and Asia began.
• Disagreements between both blocks led to the Cold War (1947 - 1991).
• NATO was formed as a military pact between the USA and Western countries.
• The Warsaw Pact was formed as a military pact between the USSR and its allies.

Cold War (1947 - 1991)

• When did it start? In 1947.
• What happened? A tense relationship developed between the two blocks.
• Causes? Ideological

The Louisiana Purchase

The Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the United States, significantly increasing the nation's global prominence and influence. This acquisition opened the interior of the continent to settlement.

• Constitutional Concerns: President Thomas Jefferson exercised executive powers not explicitly granted by the Constitution.
• The Transaction: Napoleon Bonaparte of France sold the territory for $15 million.
• French Motivation: Napoleon sought funds for European conflicts and lost interest in the port after the loss of Haiti.
• Expedition: Lewis and Clark were commissioned to survey the new territory.

The Oregon Trail

The Oregon Trail served as the primary route for pioneers traveling west during the 1840s, beginning in Missouri and... Continue reading "Key Events in 19th Century American Westward Expansion" »

The Polish Problem

In the summer of 1939, Poland was unaware of the impending war.

German Invasion

August 31, 1939:

• Provocation of Gleiwitz: Germany staged an attack on its own radio station to blame Poland.

September 1, 1939:

• Germany invaded Poland without a declaration of war.
• Schleswig-Holstein battle: German battleship attacked the port of Gdańsk.

Soviet Invasion

September 17, 1939:

• Soviet Union invaded Poland under the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact.

Poland under German Occupation

• Headquarters in Kraków: Nazis established the General Government.
• Robbery of Art: Masterpieces were stolen.
• Sonderaktion Krakau: Intellectual elites, including professors, were arrested.

Soviet Occupation

• Katyn Massacre: Polish military elites were executed in the Katyn Forest.
• Civilians

Failure of the League of Nations

Originated at the end of World War I to keep peace, the League of Nations did not fulfill its aspirations. The League was intended to sanction countries attacking others, but its effectiveness depended on member countries to reinforce its decisions. For instance, in 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria, and in 1935, Italy invaded Abyssinia; in both cases, the League failed to act decisively. Furthermore, when Adolf Hitler began breaking the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, the League also proved ineffective.

Appeasement Policy and Non-Intervention

European countries attempted to appease Adolf Hitler, allowing him to pursue his expansionist agenda in an effort to avoid war. This policy enabled aggressive nations to achieve... Continue reading "Interwar Period Crises: Causes of World War II and the Great Depression" »