Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Spanish

The Sophists: Masters of Rhetoric and Philosophy in Antiquity

The Sophists in Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire

The Sophists were a specific type of teacher in both Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire. Many Sophists specialized in using the tools of philosophy and rhetoric, although other Sophists taught subjects such as music, athletics, and mathematics. In general, they claimed to teach areté ("excellence" or "virtue"), predominantly to young statesmen and nobility.

The early Sophists' practice of charging money for education and providing wisdom only to those who could pay led to condemnations, notably by Socrates. Despite these criticisms, many Sophists flourished in later periods, especially during the era of Roman history known as the... Continue reading "Sophists: Teachers of Ancient Greece and Rome" »

Modal Verbs for Speculation

When you are sure something is true:

• Ex: He must be rich. He drives a Ferrari.
• He hasn't come to class. He must have fallen asleep.
• He must be sleeping.

When you are not sure something is true (50-50):

• Ex: He hasn't come to class. He might/may/could be ill.
• He hasn't passed the exam. He may/might not have studied very much (do not use 'could' in negatives).

When you are sure something is not true:

• Ex: He can't be Spanish. He only speaks English.
• He got a 0 in the exam. He can't/couldn't have studied very much.

'Should' for Expectations:

• Ex: The classes aren't complicated this year. The exam SHOULD BE quite easy.

Inversion

• Not only is my brother lazy, but he's also very selfish.
• Not until you can behave like an adult will we treat

Essential English Connectors and Linking Words

• Nevertheless (S): Sin embargo, no obstante
• Nor (PREP): Ni
• Not only (PREP): No sólo
• Not even (BOTH): Ni siquiera
• Not even if (S): Ni aún, ni aunque
• Now and then (S): De vez en cuando
• Nowadays (S): En la actualidad, actualmente, en el presente, hoy en día
• On behalf of (PREP): A nombre de / de parte de
• Only if (S): Solo si (strictly conditioned by)
• On the condition that: A condición de
• On purpose (AT THE END): A propósito
• On second thoughts (S): Al pensarlo de nuevo / pensándolo bien
• On the other hand (S): Por otro lado, por otra parte
• Once (S): Una vez que
• Otherwise (S): De lo contrario, de otro modo
• Owing to (PREP): Debido a
• Perhaps (BOTH): Quizás, tal vez
• Rather (PREP): Más bien
• Scarcely/barely/hardly (+verb)

VOCABULARY:

accomplishment (14): èxit

background (11): orígens, experiència

defeat (6): derrota

draw (4): dibuixar

gift (4): tenir un don

guidance (8): direcció

move (4): moviment

referee (7): àrbitre 

self-esteem (4-6): autoestima

sportsmanship (13): esportivitat

stamina (7): resistència

teammate (8): company d'equip

willpower (9): força de voluntat

beat (4): batre

catch up with (5-2-4): posar-se al dia amb

devote (oneself) (6): dedicar-se

enhance (7): millorar

excel (5)/excel at (5-2): ser molt bo en

flee (4): fugir

go in for (2-2-3): anar per

let down (3-4): deixar tirat

sit out (3-3): seure

tell apart (4-5): diferenciar

try out for (3-3-3): provar per

stunning (8): fantàstic

a bad loser (1-3-5): mal perdedor 

(be) a good sport ((2)1-

There Is, There Are, and Have Got / Has Got

Examples and Translations:

• There are two cats on the roof: Hay dos gatos en el tejado.
• You have got a beautiful apartment: Tú tienes un apartamento bonito.
• Hans has got two sisters: Hans tiene dos hermanas.
• There is some cake in the fridge: Hay algo de tarta en la nevera.
• It is very small: Es muy pequeña.
• Her sister has got a hamster: Su hermana tiene un hámster.
• There are two lamps in the bedroom: Hay dos lámparas en el dormitorio.
• There is a big bed in the bedroom: Hay una cama grande en el dormitorio.
• There are two cats on the roof: Hay dos gatos en el tejado.
• There are three boys in the sitting room: Hay tres chicos en el cuarto de estar.
• There are some books on the table: Hay algunos libros sobre la

English Language Essentials

Key Vocabulary for Global Issues

• War (guerra)
• Peace (paz)
• Terrorism (terrorismo)
• Immigration (inmigración)
• Famine (hambruna)
• Malnutrition (malnutrición)
• Poverty (pobreza)
• Racism (racismo)
• Pollution (contaminación)
• The environment (el medio ambiente)
• Disease (enfermedad)
• Illiteracy (analfabetismo)

Mastering the Verb 'Get'

• Get fatter: become
• Get home: arrive
• Get presents: receive
• Get a medal: obtain
• Get a sandwich: buy
• Get someone a glass of water: bring

Useful Expressions for English Dialogue

• So do I/Neither do I (Yo también/yo tampoco)
• I suppose so (Supongo que sí)
• Do you think so? (Usted cree?)
• I agree/I don't agree (Estoy de acuerdo/No estoy de acuerdo)
• I'm not sure. Maybe you're right. (No estoy seguro, quizás tengas razón).

Core

Gramática: Verbos modales

• Can: se puede traducir como "poder" en español y expresa habilidad o posibilidad. Por ejemplo: I can speak English fluently. También se usa para pedir permiso o preguntar si algo es posible: Can I have some sugar in my tea, please?
• Could: es la forma en pasado de can. También se puede usar para preguntas con el mismo significado que can, pero es más formal. Could you please help me with my English pronunciation?
• Will: se usa para formar el futuro, ya que no existe un tiempo verbal específico para hacer esto en inglés. También sirve para pedir favores o información: Will they cover your travel expenses on the trip? Una versión más formal de will es shall.
• Should: similar al castellano "deber", se usa para expresar

Understanding Service Sectors

Types of Services

• By Provider: Services can be public or private.
• By Function: Services can relate to business, transport, or tourism.
• By Technology Use:
  • Traditional Services: Do not use new technologies.
  • Advanced Services: Utilize new technologies.

Where Services Are Located

The location of services is influenced by several factors:

• Government commitment to providing basic social services.
• High income levels of inhabitants.
• Low employment in agricultural and industrial sectors.
• Tertiarization of industries (shift towards service-based economies).

Why Outsourcing Occurs

Developed countries often transfer some of these services to less developed countries where labor is cheaper, leading to outsourcing.

Key Service Sectors

Transport

English Verb Tenses

• Present Simple: Our bus leaves at 5 o'clock.
• Future Perfect: We'll have walked miles by the time we finish.
• Future Simple: I think that robot will win the championship.
• Future Continuous: I hope that I'll be designing F1 cars in 10 years' time.
• Present Continuous: We're all meeting for lunch at 1 o'clock.
• To be going to: I'm going to enter that competition.

The Evolution of the Book

The evolution of the book began approximately in 3000 BC, when clay tablets were engraved with words. One of the oldest surviving literary fragments from this period is The Epic of Gilgamesh, a long poem about a mythical king. Only incomplete verses from the era survive on 12 clay tablets. These were discovered in 1853 in the ancient Assyrian city of... Continue reading "English Grammar and Historical Evolution of Books" »

Reported Speech Rules

Direct speech: "My parents are vegetarian." -> Reported speech: He said that his parents were vegetarian.

Tense Changes in Reported Speech

• Present Simple (I take) -> Past Simple (I took)
• Present Continuous (I am taking) -> Past Continuous (I was taking)
• Past Simple (I took) -> Past Perfect Simple (I had taken)
• Present Perfect Simple (I have taken) -> Past Perfect Simple (I had taken)
• Will (I will take) -> Would (I would take)
• Can (I can take) -> Could (I could take)
• Must (I must take) -> Had to (I had to take)

Example: "If you don't sit down, I will send you out!" (The teacher to a pupil) -> The teacher said to a pupil that if he didn't sit down, he would send him out.

Time and Place Expressions

• Here ->