Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Tudor Dynasty (1485-1603)

Henry VIII (1491-1547)

King of England from 1509, Henry VIII was the second Tudor monarch. He is best known for his six marriages and his persistent efforts to annul his first marriage to Catherine of Aragon to marry Anne Boleyn.

The English Reformation

At the time, England was a Catholic country, and the Pope refused to grant a divorce, as the Church viewed marriage as a lifelong commitment. To bypass this, Henry VIII required all Church officials to swear that he was the leader of the Church. This process, known as the Reformation, was confirmed by the Act of Supremacy (1534), which declared Henry the Supreme Head of the Church of England.

Dissolution of the Monasteries

With the support of his chief minister, Thomas... Continue reading "The Tudor Dynasty: Henry VIII and Elizabeth I Explained" »

What are Civil Rights?

Civil rights are basic rights that every citizen has under the laws of the government. In the United States, the civil rights of each individual citizen are protected by the Constitution. Civil rights for every person means that regardless of gender, skin color, religion, nationality, age, disability, or religion, a person should not be discriminated against. Civil rights include the right to free speech, privacy, religion, assembly, a fair trial, and freedom of thought. Anyone who is considered a citizen of a country should be treated equally under the law.

Civil Rights Movements Throughout History

Throughout history, there have been different civil rights movements. Each movement fought for the rights of a given section... Continue reading "Civil Rights: A Global Fight for Equality" »

Fascist Italy: Rise and Consolidation of Power

Following World War I, Italy faced severe challenges including war debts, high unemployment, and rampant inflation. These economic hardships generated significant social tensions, and traditional political parties proved ineffective in addressing them. Peasants occupied estates, and industrial workers organized widespread strikes.

Mussolini's Ascent to Power

• Support from Elites: The middle and upper classes, fearing a communist revolution, increasingly supported Benito Mussolini's Fascist Party.
• Suppression of Dissent: The Fascists responded to social unrest with brutal violence, attacking peasants, workers, and union leaders.
• Electoral Gains: In 1921, the Fascist Party won numerous seats in parliament,

1.1 The Rise of Right-Wing Governments (1934-1936)

1.1.1 Conservative Government's Rise to Power

A conservative government came to power and suspended previous government reforms.

In 1934, a general strike led to two significant events:

• A social revolution in Asturias
• Cataluña proclaiming itself an independent state

New elections were held in 1936.

1.1.2 The Popular Front Government

The Popular Front, comprised of various left-wing parties, won the 1936 elections and continued implementing the reforms that the previous government had suspended.

Protests erupted between Falangists, Socialists, Anarchists, and Communists.

In July 1936, a faction of the military rebelled against the government, initiating the Spanish Civil War.

1.2 The Spanish Civil War

Led... Continue reading "Spanish Civil War & Interwar Art: A Historical Overview" »

World War II: Main Ideas and Context

Main Ideas

1. Economic and political problems troubled Europe in the years after World War I.
2. World War II broke out when Germany invaded Poland.
3. Nazi Germany targeted the Jews during the Holocaust.
4. Allied victories in Europe and Japan brought the end of World War II.

The Big Idea

Problems in Europe led to World War II, the deadliest war in history.

The Great Depression

It was a global crisis in the 1930s.

Meaning of Dictator

A dictator is a ruler who has total control.

Most Famous Dictators

Below are descriptions of prominent dictators leading up to and during the war:

• Russia: Vladimir Lenin. He gained power in the 1917 Revolution and formed a communist government; he also created the Soviet Union.
• Joseph Stalin. He took

It took some time for U.S. law and politics to connect itself to the global economy. For years, the country was divided over whether those connections were necessary, and, then, which government agency has the obligation to maintain the connection. It came down to the US Supreme Court, who made conclusions that influence international economics to the present day. We'll take a look at the key cases, all of which are still controversial decades later. Since the U.S. dollar remains the currency of choice for world business today, quite a few of America's international business partners know these ageing Supreme Court rulings backwards-and-forwards as well. Knowledge is power, especially when billions of dollars are at stake around the world.... Continue reading "The Influence of Military Power on Foreign Policy and International Economics" »

The Armed Peace in Europe

In Europe, between 1870 and 1914, there was a period of what is known as the Armed Peace.

Importance of the German Empire

During the period of the Armed Peace, the role of the German Empire was important. After the unification of Germany in 1871, it became the most important power in Europe.

The Bismarckian System (1871–1890)

Wilhelm I used diplomacy to maintain the balance of power between European countries.

• To maintain Germany's hegemony in Europe to such an extent that the main concern of the other European countries would be to maintain friendly relations with Germany.
• To prevent France from declaring war on Germany to recover Alsace-Lorraine.

Wilhelm II and the Expansionist Policy (1890–1914)

In the second phase,... Continue reading "Armed Peace to World War I: Europe, Empires and Alliances" »

Colonial Conflicts

The Berlin Conference (1885) attempted to establish rules for the colonization of the African continent by European empires. However, the rise of powers such as the German Empire reopened conflicts between European countries. At the beginning of the 20th century, Morocco was the main scene of international tension, as European powers competed to control it. The possibility of war was constantly present.

Rivalry Between Powers and Nationalism

European powers became increasingly nationalistic to defend their interests in Europe and their colonial empires. Some Europeans had nationalist aspirations, while others wanted to defend their great empires. The Balkans became a center of heightened tension. There was also significant rivalry... Continue reading "The Road to World War I: From Colonial Conflicts to Global Conflict" »

The End of World War II

Allied Victory

1. In 1943, British forces gained control of North Africa and Italy, forcing Mussolini to surrender.
2. In June 1944, Allied forces landed on Normandy, France, in the event known as D-Day.
3. In May 1945, Germany surrendered. In August 1945, the United States used the atomic bomb on Japan. World War II was over.

Results of the War

1. The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the most powerful countries in the world.
2. In 1945, some 50 nations formed the United Nations, an international peacekeeping organization.

The Cold War Era

Defining the Cold War

The Cold War was a period of tense rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union.

Causes and Effects

• Cause: Rivalry developed between the United States and the Soviet

New Technology & Tactics

Tank corps & RFC growing in importance; awareness of importance of these new weapons.

Significant improvements to tank technology & tactics in particular. Tanks employed en masse and with infantry filing behind to ‘mop up’.

Improvement of artillery; ‘Creeping Barrage’ made more effective by better communications & ‘106 fuse’ shells designed to explode horizontally.

Battle of Arras & Failure of Nivelle

Designed as a diversion to Nivelle’s upcoming offensive.

Element of surprise achieved with only short artillery bombardment preceding the attack. Artillery also far more effective.

Infantry approached German trenches through tunnels to minimize casualties.

Efficacy of ‘Combined Arms Tactics’... Continue reading "World War I Battles: New Technology and Tactics" »