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The Spanish Civil War: Early Military Operations (1936-1937)

Phase One: The Advance and the "War Columns" (July - Nov 1936)

Military operations began the week following the uprising, giving rise to a phase of the Civil War (GC) called the "War Columns." This period elapsed between the onset of operations and the failure of the rebels in their attempt to take Madrid in early November 1936.

After crossing the Strait, the African troops (commanded by Yagüe) managed to link up with the rebel zone in the north, after eliminating the resistance in Badajoz in September. In late September, Franco took Toledo. By October, the conquest of the capital seemed imminent.

The Defense of Madrid

Due to the imminent threat, general mobilization was ordered on October... Continue reading "Key Military Campaigns of the Spanish Civil War (1936-1937)" »

The Devastating Effects of World War II

The effects of World War II on the human, material, and moral fabric of society were devastating, especially in Europe, marking a definitive decline in many aspects.

Human Loss and Impact

• Loss of Life: The conflict extended globally, resulting in approximately 55 million killed, 35 million wounded, and three million missing. Most casualties were civilians.
• The most affected country was the Soviet Union, followed by Poland, Germany, and Czechoslovakia.
• Another significant human effect was the large-scale population movements across continents.

Moral Effects and Justice

The war caused severe trauma and profoundly questioned the ethical values of the population. This included atrocities such as the genocide committed... Continue reading "World War II Aftermath: Human, Economic, and Political Shifts" »

The establishment of the Second Republic and the Constitution of 1931

Following Primo de Rivera's resignation in 1930, a growing decline of the monarchy was evident. The king appointed Prime Minister General Berenguer, who was to replace the constitutional system (1876 Constitution), which was unacceptable to the opposition, and save the figure of Alfonso XIII, associated with the dictatorship. On April 12, 1931, municipal elections were held to replace the councils of the dictatorship. Republican and Socialist candidates won in much of the country, demonstrating a rejection of the monarchy. Alfonso XIII relinquished real power and left Spain. On April 14, 1931, the Second Republic was proclaimed, establishing a provisional government headed... Continue reading "The Establishment of the Second Republic in Spain" »

Fragments of the Constitution of Cadiz: Text 2

Selection of articles from the Constitution of 1812, reflecting key features of a liberal state. This is a primary source of legal and political content.

The courts, in the absence of Ferdinand VII, decree and sanction the following (preamble):

• Hereditary Constitutional Monarchy (Art. 14)
• National Sovereignty (Article 3)
• Confessional state in the Apostolic Roman Catholic religion (Art. 12)
• Separation of Powers:
  • Executive Power: Resides in the King and the government (Art. 16)
  • Legislative Power: Resides in the courts with the King (Art. 17)
  • Judicial Power: Based in the courts (Art. 17)
• Bill of Rights and Duties:
  • The right to freedom of speech (Art. 371)
  • Duty to pay taxes (Art. 8)
• The Spanish nation is the collection

Societal Impact and Military Dynamics

Hardship and Repression

The severe food shortages led to widespread hunger and the emergence of a black market. Bombings of cities further demoralized the civilian population. Rebel soldiers used extremely harsh repression to terrorize the enemy. The response in the Republican zone was also brutal, and the Government struggled to control it, generating huge disrepute among Western democracies. The Church suffered particularly harsh persecution. Additionally, various local hatreds emerged.

The Refugee Crisis

The refugee issue was a serious problem, particularly in the Republican zone. The first major refugee movement was caused by the Battle of Madrid and the Republican government's decision to move many people... Continue reading "Spanish Civil War: Societal Impact and Military Dynamics" »

The Fall of Primo de Rivera's Dictatorship

Despite attempts to establish a new regime, Primo de Rivera faced widespread criticism, opposition demonstrations, and even military pronouncements. In a state of political isolation and after losing the support of Alfonso XIII, Primo de Rivera resigned on January 28, 1930. Alfonso XIII attempted to restore the old system of alternating governments (with Berenguer and Aznar), but after the municipal elections of April 12, 1931, the Second Spanish Republic was established.

The Rise of the PSOE

International Workers' Association and Early Influences

The International Workers' Association (IWA), founded in London in 1864, initially encompassed both Marxist and anarchist ideologies. However, after continuous... Continue reading "Primo de Rivera's Dictatorship and the Rise of the PSOE in Spain" »

The Great Depression: An Overview

The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression in the decade preceding World War II. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, but in most countries it started in 1930 after the passage of the Smoot-Hawley Tariff bill (June 17), and lasted until the late 1930s or early 1940s. It was the longest, most widespread, and deepest depression of the 20th century.

In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the world's economy can decline.

Origins and Timing

The depression originated in the U.S., after the fall in stock prices that began around September 4, 1929 and became worldwide news with the stock market crash of October 29, 1929 (known as Black... Continue reading "The Great Depression: Causes and Effects" »

American and French Revolutions: Key Differences

The settlers quickly realized that the 1765 proposal was destined to fail. With the Declaration of Independence of 1776, they found it impossible to continue living as subjects of the British monarch and under the protection of the laws of the motherland.

Seeking a strong separation from England, the first part of the Declaration explicitly invokes the doctrine of individual natural rights and the social contract. These concepts, previously alien to the debate on rights within the British constitutional tradition's historicist model, were now crucial. It became necessary to proclaim the monarch a tyrant—the last, strong thread connecting the settlers to the mother country—and this spurred numerous... Continue reading "American vs. French Revolution: A Comparison" »

The Crisis of 1929: Causes

Overproduction

The war had fostered an incipient industrialization of the United States, outside of Europe. After the war, growth did not stop. The global total of agricultural and mineral raw materials increased by 11%. The global economy produced more than it could consume. Example: Due to the coffee crop in Brazil, coffee was taken in large quantities to the sea.

Capital Speculation

The policy of cheap money lending was fostered in the U.S. The Federal Reserve System provided money at a 5% interest rate. Banks withdrew it and paid 12% to stock market investors. When the New York Stock Exchange collapsed, it dragged down a large number of small banks, whose liquid assets had been used by private investors in loans.... Continue reading "The 1929 Crisis, WWI, Bolsheviks, and Stalin: Key Factors" »

Global Bipolarity and the Cold War

The post-World War II era saw the emergence of global bipolarity, primarily between two major blocs:

• The United States led the capitalist bloc, characterized by a free market economy, democratic governance, and extensive civil liberties.
• The Soviet Union led the socialist bloc, featuring an economy controlled by the state and significant limitations on human liberties.

Early Cold War Confrontations

The Civil War in Greece (1946) is often considered the first instance where the Cold War rivalry was overtly expressed.

The Marshall Plan

To aid European recovery and counter Soviet influence, the United States launched the European Reconstruction Plan, famously known as the Marshall Plan, named after George Catlett Marshall.... Continue reading "Cold War Bipolarity and Global Organizations" »