Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of History

The October Revolution

The slowness of land reform fueled popular discontent and bolstered the Bolsheviks' influence. They envisioned a government of Soviets representing workers and peasants. Their program promised peace, land redistribution, and nationalization of banking and transport. On October 25th, the Bolsheviks seized power, dismissing the provisional government. With support from the Russian Congress of Soviets, Lenin formed a workers' government. The new government immediately expropriated land and placed factories under the control of worker committees.

The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1931)

In 1923, Miguel Primo de Rivera launched a coup d'état, establishing a military dictatorship inspired by Italian fascism. The regime... Continue reading "From Tsarist Russia to the Spanish Civil War: A Tumultuous Era" »

Spanish Disentailment

The Mendizábal Disentailment (1836)

Effective and widespread disentailment took place during the 19th century under the reign of Isabella II, during the regency of her mother, Maria Cristina de Borbón. Minister Juan Álvarez Mendizábal (a progressive liberal) promoted the disentailment. Its causes included:

• The Carlist War, which obliged the state to obtain resources at a time of empty coffers and diminished foreign credit.
• Radical anti-clericalism encouraged by progressive liberals, based on the clergy's support for the Carlist side. Raids on monasteries, fires, desecration, and killings were common between 1834 and 1836.
• Pressure from wealthy purchasers of goods during the previous three years, demanding the return of

Sixtus V's Vision for Rome

Goyo XIII established a law that allowed and recommended opening large avenues for communication. Sixtus V capitalized on the decline of Philip II, transforming Rome into the capital of the Catholic world. He justified his actions with religious reasoning, constructing basilicas and avenues to facilitate communication. These avenues served as focal points for pilgrims, creating a dynamic urban space.

The Strada Felice and Fontana's Commission

Sixtus V commissioned Domenico Fontana to create the Strada Felice, a grand avenue bearing his name. Fontana also designed the Piazza del Popolo, connecting it to the Basilica of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme. Sixtus V chose this route because it forced passage through the Basilica... Continue reading "Sixtus V's Urban Planning: Rome's Baroque Transformation" »

Hitler's War Preparations and Early Conquests

Hitler's war preparations began with an action plan stated in his book, Mein Kampf. He wanted to annex Austria to his empire, for there were many Germans there.

• He then occupied the area of the Sudeten Mountains in Czechoslovakia, inhabited by 3,000,000 Germans, and subsequently extended his power throughout the country.
• Hitler pursued his dream of German unification and Aryan unity. In reality, these territories never belonged to Germany.
• France and England, the two major European powers, saw how Hitler was gaining ground, breaking the Treaty of Versailles, for he had rearmed and began his territorial expansion.
• In a few weeks, making allies with Poland, they declared war.

The Expansion of the War

• Hitler

The Defeat of the Almohads and the Rise of the Nasrid Kingdom

In 1212, a coalition of Christian kings decisively defeated the Almohad Caliphate, paving the way for the conquest of the Guadalquivir Valley. Following the fall of the Taifa of Seville, only the small Nasrid Kingdom of Granada remained, until its eventual conquest by the Catholic Monarchs in 1492.

Andalusian Economic and Social Organization

The Andalusian economy was primarily urban, although a significant portion of the population was employed in agriculture. Production was geared towards the market, encompassing both agricultural and industrial goods. Agriculture achieved high performance through innovative irrigation systems and the introduction of industrial and medicinal plants,... Continue reading "Al-Andalus: Society, Economy, and Architecture in Muslim Spain" »

Spanish Political Instability (1917-1923)

Between 1917 and 1923, Spain saw 13 different governments formed, highlighting the lack of parliamentary support for the ruling parties.

Social Conflict and Labor Unrest

This political instability was accompanied by the strong growth of trade unions. The CNT (Confederación Nacional del Trabajo) reached 700,000 affiliates, promoting mobilization in defense of better wages and working conditions. Key leaders included Salvador Seguí, Ángel Pestaña, and Joan Peiró. The workers' struggle had the most significant impact in Barcelona and its industrial area. The most important conflict was the strike at the Canadian company, which paralyzed industry and services for over 40 days.

The Annual Disaster (1921)

Key Dates in Italy and Germany

Germany

1864: War of the Duchies – Austria and Prussia against Denmark.

1866: Austro-Prussian War – Prussia demonstrated its military superiority and unified North Germany.

1870-1871: Franco-Prussian War – France declared war on Prussia, surrendered, and Napoleon III was deposed. Prussia conquered Alsace-Lorraine. France signed the peace treaty.

Italy

1859: War against Austria with French support – liberation of Lombardy.

1860: A volunteer army led by Garibaldi conquered the Kingdom of Sicily.

1866: Italian allies conquered Veneto.

1870: Italian troops entered Rome.

Main Players in Both Unifications

In Germany: the Prussian Chancellor Bismarck. In Italy: the Piedmontese minister Cavour.

Economic Reasons Influencing

Francisco de Goya y Lucientes

Francisco de Goya y Lucientes (Fuendetodos, Zaragoza, March 30, 1746 - Bordeaux, France, April 15, 1828) was a Spanish painter and engraver. His work encompasses easel and mural painting, printmaking, and drawing. In all these facets, he developed a style that inaugurated Romanticism. Goya's art also marks the beginning of contemporary painting and is considered a forerunner of twentieth-century avant-garde painting. Some of his most famous works include: *The Disasters of War*, *La Maja Desnuda*, *The Charge of the Mamluks*, *The Third of May 1808*, and *Saturn Devouring His Son*.

Antonio Cánovas del Castillo

Antonio Cánovas del Castillo (Málaga, February 8, 1828 - Mondragón, Guipúzcoa, August 8, 1897) was a... Continue reading "Goya and Cánovas: Art, Politics, and Peace in Spain" »

The War of Independence and its Aftermath

Pro-French: Spaniards who recognized Joseph Bonaparte as king.

Fernandina: Spaniards who remained loyal to Ferdinand VII.

Guerrillas: Armed civilians who harassed Napoleon's army and hindered its control of territory.

The War of Independence began on 2 May 1808.

The royal family was not able to organize the fight together, which is why a board was organized to create a supreme central government.

Political Instability and the Reign of Ferdinand VII

Pronunciamiento: A typical military uprising of the nineteenth century aimed at changing a particular political system.

Holy Alliance: An alliance of several European kings to deal with liberal governments.

The reign of Ferdinand VII, after his return to Spain, restored... Continue reading "19th Century Spain: War, Politics, and Social Change" »

Franco's Spain (1939-1975)

On April 1, 1939, the Spanish Civil War ended, leaving approximately 300,000 Spaniards dead. For those who survived, a long and difficult post-war period began. To celebrate his victory, General Francisco Franco (also known as "El Caudillo"), presided over a large military parade in Madrid on May 19, 1939. Representatives from the foreign countries that had aided him were in attendance.

At that time, Franco held the highest degree of power in Spanish history. He was Head of State, Head of Government, Commander of the Armed Forces, and head of the only permitted party: the nationalist Spanish Falange. The new state declared itself a confessional Catholic state and a defender of the faith, restoring power to the Catholic... Continue reading "Franco's Spain: Dictatorship and Post-War Era (1939-1975)" »