Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Paris Peace Conference

In January 1918, U.S. President Wilson stated in the U.S. Congress his Fourteen Points, which he believed should govern a just and lasting peace. Its objectives were:

• Abolition of secret diplomacy.
• Freedom of navigation and international trade.
• Breakup of old empires.
• Creation of a Society of Nations.

But these principles were not fully respected, as the European Allies were more concerned with defending their own interests.

The Paris Peace Conference (1919-1920) produced five treaties stipulating the conditions of peace and new boundaries between the victors and the vanquished.

The Post-War Treaties

• Treaty of Versailles

  Signed on 28 June 1919 between the Allies and Germany. Germany's empire was split in two by the Polish Corridor.

Restoration of Absolutism (1814-1820)

In 1814, Ferdinand VII returned to Spain. Liberals hoped he would uphold the Constitution of Cádiz, but he abolished it and restored the Old Regime. He reinstated privileges for the clergy and nobility, exempting them from taxes. Ferdinand ruled absolutely, persecuting liberals, many of whom fled into exile.

Liberals and the army attempted pronouncements to restore liberalism, but these failed due to public indifference, and their leaders were imprisoned or executed.

Trienio Liberal (1820-1823)

In 1820, a liberal uprising led by Colonel Riego proclaimed the Constitution of 1812. Ferdinand VII was forced to swear to the constitution, release political prisoners, and hold elections. Liberal reforms were...

Primo de Rivera

This political text justifies the 1923 coup d'état and criticizes Spanish politicians. The author is Miguel Primo de Rivera, military dictator of Spain (1923-1930), father of José Antonio Primo de Rivera (founder of the Falange Española). This text, from September 13, 1923 (the day of the coup), was published in The Age (Madrid). It addresses the Spanish people and the army, explaining the coup's necessity.

First Paragraph: Attacks the Restoration's political system, advocating for drastic measures and a military dictatorship. Primo de Rivera claims the coup was unavoidable due to Spain's catastrophic situation, referencing the crisis of 1898 (loss of colonies).

Second Paragraph: Criticizes turnismo, the system where Liberal...

Key Concepts of the Russian Revolution and Soviet History

Political Factions and Ideologies

Mensheviks

A faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) opposed to Tsarist rule. This group argued that Russia must first undergo a bourgeois revolution and develop a capitalist economy before achieving a socialist state. They conceived of the revolution as a mass organization open to militants and sympathizers.

Bolsheviks

A faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP). Their goal was the defeat of Tsarism and the establishment of a "revolutionary democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and the peasantry." They conceived of the party as a tightly disciplined organization whose militants had to follow the program and...

Key Terms of 19th Century Spain

**Pragmatic Sanction**

A rule or statutory provision enacted by the king to affect fundamental aspects of the state, such as the succession to the throne. In this case, *Felipe VII* took place in 1830 to eliminate this law because it failed *Salic* sons.

**Regency**

A transitional period during which a person exercises power on behalf of the monarch, either too young or old, due to absence or incapacity.

**Ominous Decade**

The period of the last phase of the reign of *Fernando VII* and the restoration of absolutism after the Liberal Triennium (1820-1823) ruled that the Constitution of Cadiz, 1812. This period is called shameful and began in 1823 with the invasion of the Hundred Thousand Sons of St. Louis, ending in...

The End of War

The stability of the system was favored by the Cuban and Carlist wars. The Bourbon Restoration deprived the Carlist cause a great deal, and some people ended up recognizing Alfonso XII. Besides, the government's efforts during military government in 1875 made possible the reduction of core Carlists in Catalonia. The intervention of the army, commanded by Martinez Campos, finally forced the surrender of Carlists in Catalonia, Aragon, and Valencia. Nevertheless, the conflict lasted over the Basque Country and Navarre, where most of the military government moved, which managed to weaken the resistance until the Basque and Navarre total surrender in 1876. In February 1876, Prince Charles crossed the French border in the direction...

The Spanish Restoration: Monarchy Reinstated (1875-1902)

The Fall of the First Republic and the Rise of Alfonso XII

In 1873, following the fall of the Elizabethan regime caused by the "Glorious Revolution" of September 1868 and the abdication of Amadeus of Savoy in February 1873, the First Spanish Republic was introduced. This republic, initially unitary, aimed to convene the Constituent Assembly to promulgate a new constitution but failed to do so. In January 1874, General Pavia and General Serrano staged a coup, effectively ending the Republic.

This event, followed by the pronouncement in December 1874 by General Martinez Campos, supported by Antonio Canovas del Castillo, paved the way for the restoration of the traditional monarchy in favor...

The Crisis of 1808, the War of Independence, and the Dawn of the Liberal Revolution

Under Carlos IV, ministerial despotism took hold in Spain, with the prime minister wielding true power. The French Revolution sent shockwaves of concern throughout Europe, particularly in Spain due to its proximity to France and the familial ties between their monarchs. Spanish foreign policy, traditionally aligned with France through the Family Pacts since the War of Succession, was forced to reassess its stance. Initially, Prime Minister Floridablanca, appointed by Carlos IV, maintained a policy of watchful neutrality towards France and suppressed revolutionary propaganda. However, under the influence of Queen Maria Luisa of Parma, Manuel Godoy ascended to...

The Constitution of the Government, 1837

During Mendizábal's time, there was tension between the Moderates and Progressives. The Moderates wanted to maintain the Royal Statute but desired a constitution. The Regent, sympathizing with the Moderates, dismissed Mendizábal in May 1836, giving the government to a Moderate. A month later, the Regent dissolved the Estate of Solicitors, which led to protests from urban Progressives. Finally, in August 1836, the sergeants of the Royal Palace, where the Regent was staying, mutinied and obliged her to give the government to José María Calatrava and to swear in the Progressive Constitution of 1812. The Progressive government of Calatrava called a Constituent Assembly, which would draw up and approve...

Causes of the 1898 Crisis

In 1868, Cuba initiated autonomy movements. A popular rebellion, led by Manuel Céspedes ("Grito de Yara"), marked the beginning of the struggle for the abolition of slavery in plantations and sugar mills, alongside a political insurrection. The Cuban autonomy movement was significantly influenced by the example and encouragement of North America, where slavery had been abolished after the Civil War.

The Ten Years' War lasted until 1878 and concluded with the Peace of Zanjón. Through this agreement, General Arsenio Martínez Campos undertook to grant Cuba forms of self-government. Subsequently, the Cuban Liberal Party emerged, representing sugar landowners who largely opposed any kind of reform.

By 1895, insurgencies...