Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Victoriano Huerta and the Mexican Revolution

Victoriano Huerta (born December 23, 1854, Colotlán, Mexico—died January 13, 1916, El Paso, Texas, U.S.) was the dictatorial president of Mexico from February 18, 1913, to July 15, 1914. His repressive regime inadvertently united disparate revolutionary forces in common opposition to him.

Rise to Power and the Coup

Born of Indian parents, Huerta trained at the Chapultepec Military College and eventually rose to the rank of general in the army during the rule of the dictator Porfirio Díaz. Though an admirer of Díaz, Huerta served his successor, the liberal president Francisco Madero, as chief of staff of the army.

When part of the army in Mexico City rebelled against Madero in February 1913, Huerta...

TheWeimar constitution

In the month following the signing of the treaty, the Weimar constituent assembly completed a draft constitution for the new republic, resulting in what was hailed as the most modern democratic constitution of its day. The Weimar constitution provided for a popularly elected president who was given considerable power over foreign policy and the armed forces. Article 48 also gave the president emergency decree powers to protect the republic from crises initiated by its opponents on either the left or the right. The president was empowered to nominate the chancellor, whose government required the confidence of the lower house of the parliament, the Reichstag, which was elected by universal suffrage through a system of proportional...

The Bolshevik Seizure of Power

Lenin and Trotsky, from the outset, aimed to consolidate power within the Bolshevik Party. This unprecedented structure placed true authority in the hands of a private entity, "the Party." Bolsheviks held key positions within the state apparatus, overseen by the Council of People's Commissars.

Despite pledging to convene and honor the Constituent Assembly, the Bolsheviks, aware of their minority standing, employed delaying tactics. The elections, however, proceeded, resulting in a Socialist Revolutionary majority. The dissolution of Russia's first democratically elected legislature marked the dawn of Bolshevik dictatorship. In March 1918, the Bolshevik Party rebranded as the Russian Communist Party, distinguishing...

Roger of Hoveden’s Chronicle (early 13th c.)

This is a bilingual edition of a fragment of the chronicle written in the early 13th century by Roger of Hoveden, an Anglo-Norman monk. It is written in the form of a letter to Pope Alexander, so it is full of religious expressions.

The Normans in England

The Normans took possession of England after William “the Conqueror” won the Battle of Hastings against Saxon king Harold in 1066, a date that marks the beginning of the medieval period in England according to most historians. They brought the French language to England and professed the Christian religion.

Feudalism in England

With the coming of the Normans, a very medieval concept was introduced - feudalism, which was a social system of dependence...

He associates the union of the two crowns with the union of two people, this is, with a wedding. The world is the temple where the ceremony is celebrated; the priest is the king, who has allowed and built the union; the espoused pair are the two kingdoms (“realms”), England and Scotland; and the ring is the sea. Jonson is referring to the seas which surround the Island of Great Britain and keep it together as a whole, with no distinction between North and South.

However, the union of the two crowns did not go as far as it could have. The two countries remained distinct, with different politics and administration, only sharing the same king. Under James’ rule, the Parliament passed an act that recognised the Presbyterian Kirk (Church) as...

The Restoration of Absolutism: The countries that defeated Napoleon met at the Congress of Vienna.

Ideas: Restoring absolutism with legitimism in France and Spain to stop liberalism and nationalism. Balance of powers between European countries. The Holy Alliance Treaty with Russia, Prussia, and Austria, and the Quadruple Alliance with the previous countries plus Britain.

Revolutions in 1830: Nationalism and liberalism became popular. The revolution started in France where Charles, an absolute monarch, was replaced by Louis Philippe of Orleans as a constitutional monarch.

The Spring of Nations: The unification of Italy and Germany, and the independence of the Russian, Ottoman, and Austrian empires. There were revolts, the most important ones in...

Looking for a glimpse into the ancient world?

A) Avebury, England: Touch the Past

Stonehenge is often the first stop for history enthusiasts visiting the UK. However, there's a hidden gem nearby that offers a more immersive experience: the Avebury stone circle. Unlike Stonehenge, where visitors are kept at a distance, Avebury allows you to walk among, touch, and truly connect with the ancient stones.

The Avebury stones, though less uniform than Stonehenge, possess a raw, ancient energy. Their survival is remarkable, considering they were once targeted for destruction by those seeking to erase traces of older religions. Some stones were even repurposed as building materials for local residences. Thankfully, marmalade manufacturer Alexander Keiller...

Post-World War I Diplomacy: Conferences and Treaties (1921-1933)

Key International Agreements

Washington Naval Conference (1921-1922)

Following Japan's expansion in battleship construction, the USA became concerned about naval power in the Pacific. The Washington Naval Treaty stipulated that the Japanese Navy's size could not exceed three-fifths that of the U.S. Navy, aiming to limit naval arms and prevent an arms race.

The Genoa Conference (1922)

This conference proved to be a complete failure. Germany requested more time to pay its war reparations, but France, in urgent need of the funds, refused the request.

The Treaty of Rapallo (1922)

Signed by Germany and the USSR, this 10-year treaty established an alliance between the two nations. It allowed...

Neoclassicism:

1770-1830

Return to the rules of Classical Antiquity (Greece and Rome).

The discovery of Pompeii and Herculaneum helps to make Antiquity fashionable.

It is a severe style, containment in forms (wants to get away from the Baroque and Rococo).

Jacques-Louis David: he was a great neoclassicism painter. He paints historical themes but linking with the political reality of the moment. He’s the painter of the French State and of Napoleon

The Arcs of Triumph of Napoleon: 3

After winning the battle of Austerlitz, he promised his soldiers that they would enter Paris under a triumphal arch as in the Roman Empire1806-36: works of the Arc de Triomphe • Incorporates decoration on the military victories of France • 1807-09: works of the Arc...

The Scramble for Africa

The Scramble for Africa was the occupation, division, and colonization of African territory by European powers during the period of New Imperialism, between 1881 and 1914. It is also called the Partition of Africa and by some the Conquest of Africa. In 1870, only 10 percent of Africa was under formal European control; by 1914 it had increased to almost 90 percent of the continent, with only Ethiopia (Abyssinia), the Dervish state (a portion of present-day Somalia) and Liberia still being independent. There were multiple motivations including the quest for national prestige, tensions between pairs of European powers, religious missionary zeal and internal African native politics.

The Berlin Conference

The Berlin Conference...