Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Consulate (1799–1804)

1799–1804 — Consulate: New government made up of three members in which the First Consul was Napoleon. Napoleon implemented an authoritarian rule and aspired to end political instability. New political system: no separation of powers, no declaration of rights, and censorship of public opinion. Creation of state schools, organization of the commercial code, issuance of new banknotes, and territorial division.

Napoleonic Empire (1804–1815)

Napoleonic Empire 1804–1815: Began the conquest of Europe; Napoleon was crowned Emperor by the pope. Napoleon was eventually defeated due to the coalition of absolute monarchies, growing European liberalism, and widespread anti-French sentiment.

Consequences of Napoleonic Rule

The... Continue reading "Napoleonic Era, Congress of Vienna and 19th-Century Unifications" »

1.1. Political Systems (1870–1914)

Two different political systems coexisted between 1870 and 1914:

Parliamentary Systems in Western Europe

Parliamentary systems prevailed in Western Europe. Thus, many countries adopted universal male suffrage, while suffragette movements began to arise, claiming the vote for women. Outside Europe, the United States adopted universal male suffrage and Japan introduced a parliamentary system.

Autocratic Systems in Central and Eastern Europe

Autocratic systems persisted in Central and Eastern Europe:

• Austro-Hungarian Empire: Consisted of multiple nationalities. Beginning in 1867, it became a dual monarchy formed by two crowns, each with its own organization (Austria and Hungary), while retaining a common foreign

Clientage Networks and Royal Dynasties

A clientage network is a group of dependent people linked by loyalty and favors. Kings considered themselves part of a dynasty, which is a royal family encompassing not only its current members but also past and even future ones. Their objective was to maintain and increase the legacy of their ancestors to pass it to their heirs, as they considered their kingdoms an inheritance.

The Rise of Absolute Monarchies

The difference between dynastic and kingdom interests led to two distinct political situations in the 17th century. In absolute monarchies, kings finally controlled all supreme power. They recognized the different powers inside their kingdoms, but they placed themselves above all of them. They achieved... Continue reading "17th Century Power: Absolute vs Parliamentary Rule" »

The Pilgrim Fathers and the Mayflower

The Pilgrim Fathers (Mayflower) were a religious English group formed by the end of the 16^th century. Being dissatisfied with the political-religious environment of their country, they decided to emigrate, first to Leiden and later to the New World, where they founded Plymouth. They were gathered by the Puritan Church and took refuge from religious persecution and political instability in Europe.

The Declaration of Independence

The Declaration of Independence was signed during a meeting at the Pennsylvania State House (now known as Independence Hall) in Philadelphia on July 4, 1776. The Declaration announced that the thirteen American colonies would no longer be under British rule. It established that the... Continue reading "Key Milestones in American History and Democracy" »

That-Clauses in English

Different Kinds and Functions of That-Clauses

Different kinds of that-clauses serve different functions in the English language.

Post-Predicate That-Clauses

That-clauses in the post-predicate position are the most common type. These clauses typically report human speech and thoughts.

Example: I think Stuart’s gone a bit mad.

Post-predicate that-clauses controlled by adjectives are less common than those controlled by verbs.

Subject Predicative That-Clauses

When a that-clause serves as a subject predicative to a copular verb, it usually has one of three functions:

1. Describing a problem: Example: The only problem may be that the compound is difficult to remove after use.
2. Presenting reasons, results, or conclusions: Example: Our

The Industrial Revolution: Origins and Economic Shifts

The Industrial Revolution was the process through which technological advances led to dramatic economic changes. It began in Great Britain around 1750.

Causes of the Industrial Revolution

The transition was not a rapid process; it is considered a revolution because it affected every sector of the economy and transformed society. It was caused by a series of interrelated factors that emerged simultaneously in Great Britain:

• Population growth
• The Agricultural Revolution
• Increased trade
• Technological advances

Key Elements of Industrialization

• The textile industry: The mechanization of the textile industry through the invention of the spinning machine and the mechanical weaving loom caused a massive

Political and Territorial Changes

Following the war, global relations were dominated by the USA and the USSR. Tensions between these powers grew, leading to the Cold War. In Western Europe, parliamentary democracy and capitalism were restored, while Eastern Europe saw the rise of communist dictatorships under Soviet control.

Economic Consequences

By 1945, the communications network in Central Europe had disappeared. Petroleum was scarce, and industrial production had been significantly reduced.

Human Loss and the Holocaust

World War II resulted in the deaths of 60 million people and the massive displacement of approximately 40 million individuals seeking new homes in Europe. The most brutal aspect was the Holocaust, the systematic extermination... Continue reading "Post-WWII Global Transformation and the Cold War Era" »

Causes:

• Root Causes:

  • Socio-economic imbalance
  • Privileged social groups opposed the Republicans' reforms
  • Workers' disillusionment at the slowness of Republican reforms
  • Tradition of army intervention

• Immediate Causes:

  • Political violence
  • Deterioration of public order
  • Coup led by Sanjurjo, Mola, Franco, Godet, Queipo de Llano

Supporters:

• In Favor of the Coup:
  • Anti-Republicans
  • Falangists
  • Monarchists
  • Landowners
  • Church
  • Part of the army
  • Traditionalists
• Against the Coup:
  • Part of the military
  • National Police
  • Assault Guard
  • Working class
  • Part of the middle class

International Intervention:

• France and UK remained neutral
• No intervention, no help
• Non-Intervention Committee
• USSR sent weapons and money to the Communist Party
• International Brigades to fight for democracy
• Germany and Italy

The Crusades: Expansion of Christianity in the Middle Ages

The Call to Arms

The expansion of Christianity during the Middle Ages extended beyond Europe to the eastern Mediterranean through a series of religious wars known as the Crusades. Occurring between the late 11th and early 13th centuries, these wars were sponsored by the papacy with the primary goal of reclaiming Jerusalem, the holy city, from Muslim control. In the 11th century, the papacy had compelling reasons to initiate an expedition against Muslims in the East. Such an endeavor would solidify the pope's claim as the leader of Christian society in the West. Furthermore, a significant theological rift had divided the Greek Church of Byzantium and the Roman Church of the West in 1054.... Continue reading "The Crusades: A Medieval Religious and Political Movement" »

Unification of Italy and Germany

(Pag 40)

After the revolutions of 1848, these unification processes were started. They were supported by the bourgeoisie and ideologically by liberalism and nationalism.

Italian Unification

The Italian peninsula was divided in seven different states. Besides, since 1815 Austria controlled the policy in Italy. However, Piedmont (the Kingdom of Sardinia), a northern kingdom with a liberal system, wanted to unify the whole of Italy into one state.

In 1859, Cavour, the Prime Minister of Piedmont, and Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy (the king) started the war against Austria. Piedmont was allied with France (Napoleon III). Austria was defeated and Lombardy passed to Piedmont.

In 1860, Garibaldi, a revolutionary leader, took... Continue reading "Unification of Italy and Germany in the 19th Century — Nationalism & State Building" »