Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Origins of the Kingdom of Asturias

After invading in 711, the Muslims conquered almost all of the Iberian Peninsula. In the Cordillera Cantábrica, a small group of Visigothic Christians survived the Muslim conquest and established the Kingdom of Asturias. Among these Visigothic nobles was Pelayo, who later defeated the Muslims for the first time in 722 at the Battle of Covadonga. His successors, Alfonso I and Alfonso II, established Oviedo as the capital and expanded the kingdom into Galicia.

The Rise of the Kingdom of Leon and Castile

In the second half of the 9th century, Alfonso III took control of the territory north of the Duero River. The kingdom was renamed the Kingdom of Leon, with the city of Leon as its capital. Alfonso III built... Continue reading "The Reconquista: Origins of Medieval Spanish Kingdoms" »

Debase

v. To lower in value, quality, or dignity; to cheapen.

Prophesy

v. To predict (something) by or as if by divine guidance.

Defray

v. To furnish money for.

Lucrative

Adj. Producing wealth or profit.

Countenance

n. Face; facial expression.

Stoicism

n. Indifference to pleasure or pain.

Warfare with Revolutionary and Napoleonic France

The warfare with Revolutionary and Napoleonic France took place from 1792-1815.

Sussex, Huntingdonshire, and West Riding

Former counties or divisions in southeastern England.

Ben Nevis and Helvellyn

Mountains in Britain.

Crash in 1720: South Sea Bubble

Financial crisis caused by the overvaluation of stock.

More into the Exchequer

More into the treasury than taxes on domestic goods.

Charles the Second

King of England from 1660 to 1685.... Continue reading "Key Historical and Literary Terms Defined" »

The Spanish Restoration Period

Alfonso XII and Maria Cristina

The Restoration began when Alfonso XII (son of Isabel II) returned the Bourbon dynasty to the Spanish throne in 1875.

• The conservative politician Cánovas del Castillo convinced Isabel II to abdicate in favor of her son Alfonso.
• This intervention was supported by the middle class and the army.

Key events:

1. Alfonso signed the Sandhurst Manifesto, in which he promised a constitutional government.
2. A military pronunciamiento (led by General Martínez Campos) proclaimed Alfonso king.
3. Alfonso XII died in 1885, before his legitimate son Alfonso XIII was born.
4. His widow, Maria Cristina, served as regent until Alfonso XIII came of age (1885-1902).

The Political System of the Restoration

The political... Continue reading "Spain's Restoration: Politics and Challenges" »

The Crisis of the Old Regime in Spain (1788-1808)

• Charles IV (1788-1808) left power in the hands of Prime Minister Manuel Godoy.
• In 1807, Godoy allied with Napoleon after signing the Treaty of Fontainebleau. This pact included an agreement to invade and divide Portugal, an ally of Great Britain. Under this pretext, French troops entered the Peninsula and occupied strategic points, making it clear their intention was also to invade Spain.
• This situation caused the *Mutiny of Aranjuez* (1808), which forced Charles IV to dismiss Godoy and abdicate in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII.
• In May 1808, Charles IV and Ferdinand VII were moved to Bayonne, France. There, they abdicated in favor of Napoleon, who yielded the Spanish throne to his brother, Joseph

Social and Political Dynamics in Restoration Spain

The Workers' Movement

The workers’ movement gained strength after the Constitution of 1876 recognized the freedom of association. Anarchism gained support among Catalan factory workers and Andalusian peasants. The socialists founded the trade union UGT in 1888, which was strongest in Madrid, Asturias, and the Basque Country.

Regionalism and Nationalism

Regionalism and nationalism originated as a reaction against the centralist policies of the Restoration.

• Catalan Nationalists: Sought autonomy for Catalonia and demanded Catalan be decreed the official language of Catalonia (Bases of Manresa, 1892).
• Basque Nationalists: Defended their fueros (traditional rights) and traditions.
• Galician Nationalists:

Contrasting Perspectives on International Development

William Easterly

Background

• Born in 1957; PhD in Economics from MIT.
• Professor of Economics at NYU and prominent development economist.
• Author of books critiquing traditional foreign aid approaches, such as "The White Man's Burden" and "The Elusive Quest for Growth."

Key Arguments

• Skeptical of top-down, expert-driven development strategies.
• Emphasizes the importance of local ownership, accountability, and market-based solutions.
• Argues that aid can often be ineffective and even harmful if not implemented properly.

Richard Dowden

Background

• Born in 1949; British journalist and expert on African affairs.
• Executive Director of the Royal African Society.
• Author of "Africa: Altered States, Ordinary Miracles.

The Thirty Years' War: Origins and Escalation

The Thirty Years' War began as an internal revolt within the Holy Roman Empire, pitting Protestant Princes against the new Catholic Emperor, Ferdinand II.

The Spark: Bohemian Revolt

It all started in the Kingdom of Bohemia (modern-day Czech Republic) when Ferdinand II, a Catholic, was elected king in 1617. He soon began to restrict the religious freedom of the predominantly Protestant population by closing and forbidding the construction of Protestant churches. This made him very unpopular, especially among the Protestant nobles.

The Defenestration of Prague

In 1618, a group of Protestant nobles captured the king's representatives in Prague and threw them out of the palace window! Miraculously, they... Continue reading "The Thirty Years' War: Causes, Conflicts, and Consequences" »

The Spanish Economy and Social Structure

The economy remained primarily based on agriculture, though specific regions like Catalonia, the Basque Country, and Madrid began developing a solid industrial network. Society remained deeply unequal:

• A majority of peasants and workers: Living in very poor conditions.
• A small, growing middle class.
• An upper class: Enjoying all the privileges of wealth and high society.

The System of Alternation: Continuity and Crisis (1902–1917)

The system of political alternation continued under Antonio Maura (Conservative Party) and José Canalejas (Liberal Party). The war with Morocco became the primary national issue, as the inhabitants of the Rif—a Spanish protectorate—remained in constant rebellion.

In 1909, the... Continue reading "Spain: Political Instability and the Rise of Dictatorship (1902-1931)" »

Colonial Regions of America

• New England: Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire
• Middle: New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware
• Southern: Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia

Freedoms in Colonial America

• Religious Freedom: The right to choose a religion (or no religion) without interference by the government.
• Political Freedom: The right to express one’s views about public matters and the right to support or oppose public policies.
• Economic Freedom/Opportunity: The right of every human to control his or her own labor and property.
• Social Mobility: A person's ability to move to a different social class (higher, middle, lower).

Timeline of the American Revolution

1754: French and Indian War

Fighting between... Continue reading "American Revolution: Causes and Key Events 1754-1776" »

What Was the Bourgeois Revolution?

The Early Modern Age (16th to 18th centuries) is considered a period of transition to capitalism and the start of commercial capitalism. During this time, a new social class emerged: the bourgeoisie. This was also the period of absolutism, where power was concentrated in the hands of a monarch or king.

The fact that the bourgeoisie held economic power but could not attain political power led to the age of revolutions in Europe.

Defining the Bourgeois Revolution

The bourgeois revolution is a violent process through which a country transitions from a feudal economic system and an absolutist political system to a capitalist economy and society. In this process, all obstacles to the development of capitalism are destroyed,... Continue reading "The Bourgeois Revolution: Europe's Shift to Capitalism" »