Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Revolutions of the 1820s

In Spain and Portugal, there were liberal revolutions that aimed to establish constitutional monarchies. In Spain, absolutism was re-established after The Liberal Triennium.

Greece wanted independence from the Ottoman Empire. A liberal-nationalist revolution began; it was supported by other European countries (Russia, Great Britain, and France). The Treaty of Adrianople recognized Greek independence.

The Revolutions of the 1830s

Belgium wanted independence from Holland, with which it was united to form the Netherlands. These two countries had many differences, including language and religion (most Belgians were Catholics and most Dutch were Protestants). Leopold I became Belgium's constitutional monarch.

During the Restoration... Continue reading "European Revolutions and Unifications: 1820s-1870s" »

Pillars of Islam

• Shahada: "There is no god but God. Muhammad is God's messenger."
• Salah: Pray five times a day facing Mecca. Ritual purity is required.
• Zakat: An obligatory annual tax, considered charity.
• Sawn: The fast observed during Ramadan.
• Hajj: Pilgrimage to Mecca that every Muslim must undertake at least once.

Sacred Texts and Traditions

The Quran

The Quran is understood to be the literal word of God, revealed to Muhammad. It details how to achieve salvation, requiring belief in Allah and the Quran itself. It contains 114 chapters, called Suras.

Hadith and Sunna

• The Hadith are anecdotes concerning Muhammad's life and behavior, which are highly relevant to the Muslim community.
• The Sunna is the example set by Muhammad's life, serving as a model

The 1868 Revolution

By 1868, the Spanish monarchy had become increasingly unpopular. Progressive liberals, democrats, and the Liberal Union signed the Covenant of Ostend to promote democratization and economic recovery. Several factors contributed to the revolution:

• The monarchy, particularly Queen Isabella II, faced widespread disapproval due to perceived favoritism and mismanagement.
• An economic crisis fueled discontent among the population.
• Moderate and progressive liberals formed a political monopoly, sidelining other parties and limiting political participation.

The Uprising and the Fall of Isabella II

The uprising known as "La Gloriosa" marked the beginning of the revolution against the monarchy. Led by General Juan Prim, General Francisco... Continue reading "The 1868 Spanish Revolution and the Rise of Liberalism" »

Middle English: A Linguistic Journey

The Battle of Hastings (1066)

The Battle of Hastings, on October 14th, 1066, marked a pivotal moment in English history. King Harold of England faced William, Duke of Normandy. In 1051, Edward the Confessor had named William heir to the English throne, but Harold seized it in January 1066. William landed at Pevensey with 7,000 troops. Harold, having defeated Vikings in the north, raced south to meet the Norman invasion. Harold's exhausted men faced the Normans, who had taken positions on Telham Hill. After initial resistance and a final evening attack, Harold fell, and the Saxons were defeated.

Consequences of the Norman Conquest

The consequences were profound: Harold II, crowned the day after Edward the... Continue reading "Middle English: From the Battle of Hastings to the Rise of London English" »

Key Political and Religious Terms in Iran

• Majlis: Unicameral parliament, reformist, vetted members, passes laws that are marginalized by its theocratic nature.
• Expediency Council: Liaison between the Guardian Council and the Majlis. This council makes policy and consists of 32 members who serve five-year terms.
• Guardian Council: The most powerful theological body in Iran, vetting all candidates. Their job is Sharia law oversight, making them too important to create laws. They cross executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
• Assembly of Religious Experts: They meet once a year to choose supreme leaders and are the only branch with the power to oust the Supreme Leader. Members are popularly elected.
• Maslahat: A Sunni concept meaning expediency

Political Systems: Old Regime vs. Liberalism

A comparison of the dominant political and social structures:

Causes of the French Revolution

Underlying Factors

• The structure of the Old Regime.
• Influence of Enlightenment Ideas.
• The Bourgeoisie resented being part of the Third Estate, bearing the burden of taxation despite their wealth.
• General Economic Crisis.

Specific Causes

• Short-Term Causes: Financial strain due to the war against the British and support for the 13 American Colonies.
• Long-Term Causes:
  • Unfair

The people, mostly *Criollos*, demanded that these meetings be open, not exclusively for colonial authorities. The establishment of the juntas marked the beginning of the movement towards independence.

Causes of Independence

• Latin American cities experienced significant growth, particularly large commercial centers and cities housing government seats or courts of law.
• The urban middle class embraced liberal ideas discussed in their newspapers. They were inspired by the French Revolution and the independence of the United States, admiring these nations while viewing Spain as a symbol of absolutism.
• *Criollos* felt marginalized by colonial authorities, as they were denied the most important government positions.
• Great Britain sought access to the

Authoritarian Regimes

Politics: Power was concentrated in the hands of a supreme leader and one ruling political party. Propaganda was used to spread the party's message and glorify the leader. There were no free elections, and other political parties were prohibited.

Economy: The state intervened in and controlled the economy. Public-works programmes were used to reduce unemployment, and trade unions were prohibited or controlled by the ruling party.

Society: The state limited rights and freedoms, and repressive measures were used against people who opposed or criticised the regime.

Foreign policy: These regimes pursued expansionist foreign policies to gain new territory and access to raw materials.

The Second Spanish Republic (1931-1939)

In April... Continue reading "Authoritarian Regimes & Spain's Second Republic: History" »

In 1936, the Republican Banco de España financed all the assistance received from Russia. 200 tons of gold were sent to France with the risk that General Franco’s troops would enter Madrid. A government decree ordered to transfer approximately 500 tons to Moscow. The directors of the Bank of Madrid transferred the gold reserves to Cartagena and then by sea to Moscow where they were used to defray the military assistance. These events were known for years as “the Moscow gold”.

1. The Banco de España during the Franco Regime (1939-1975)

After the war, the government set about the difficult task of restoring the country economically. The Banco de España and the financial system as a whole, should be subjected to its guidelines to bring... Continue reading "Spanish Central Bank History: Franco Era to European Union" »

Key Enlightenment Thinkers and Their Ideas

Voltaire

• Advocated for freedom of speech, press, and religion.
• Opposed monarchy, militarism, and slavery.
• Supported constitutional monarchy as a transitional step towards democracy.

Montesquieu

• Developed the theory of the separation of powers to protect people's rights.
• Significantly influenced Liberal Political Theory.

Mary Wollstonecraft

• Feminist activist and writer.
• Authored A Vindication of the Rights of Woman and A Vindication of the Rights of Men.

Immanuel Kant

• Wrote Critique of Pure Reason, a seminal work in philosophy.
• Developed deontology, a major ethical theory.

Mary Astell

• Championed social equality and choice for women in marriage.
• Advocated for equal education rights for women.

Claude-Adrien Helvétius

• Tax