Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The French Revolution: From Monarchy to Republic

The Constitutional Monarchy (1789-1792)

The French Revolution began with the bourgeoisie seeking to establish a constitutional and parliamentary monarchy, limiting the power of the King and privileged classes.

• National Constituent Assembly (1789-1791): This assembly abolished feudalism and approved the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in August 1789.
• Constitution of 1791: Based on the separation of powers, national sovereignty, and legal equality. The King's right of veto was limited, and suffrage was based on property (census suffrage).
• Legislative Assembly (1791-1792): Formed after the Constitution, it aimed to implement liberal reforms. Nobles were to pay taxes, guilds were abolished,

The Genesis of World War II: Debunking the Gavrilo Princip Myth

Although Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian member of the Black Hand terrorist group, ignited World War I through his assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, his actions were not responsible for the outbreak of World War II. Instead, the devastating Great Depression, the tension-inducing Treaty of Versailles, and the rise of expansionist Fascist governments, particularly Hitler's Nazi Germany, were the primary catalysts for the second global conflict.

The Great Depression: A Breeding Ground for Conflict

One of the key reasons why it is impossible to attribute World War II to Gavrilo Princip is his lack of direct involvement in the Great Depression. This severe economic downturn, lasting... Continue reading "Causes of World War II: Beyond Gavrilo Princip" »

Conflicts with France

The conflict with France stemmed from a personal rivalry between Charles V and Francis I, King of France. Both monarchs aimed to control the same territories, leading to numerous confrontations and alliances. The rivalry saw significant victories and defeats for both sides, with the Battle of Pavia (1525) standing out as a pivotal moment.

The Ottoman Threat

Another challenge faced by Charles V was the Ottoman Empire, ruled by the formidable Suleiman the Magnificent. Suleiman's vast and prosperous empire, stretching from Asia to Africa and Europe, posed a significant threat on multiple fronts.

In the Mediterranean and North Africa, constant naval clashes erupted between Charles V and Suleiman's forces, resulting in the loss... Continue reading "The Reign of Charles V: Conflicts, Religions, and Dynasties" »

Reconstruction Without Reconciliation

John Wilkes Booth's Decisive Bullet

Abraham Lincoln was assassinated while attending a play at the theater.

A Country in Ruins

President Andrew Johnson, a Democrat, struggled to unify the nation. While he favored abolition, he lacked Lincoln's determination in enforcing federal legislation.

Resistance to Federal Authority

Many former rebels refused to seek pardons, serving as a clear example of resistance against the federal government.

The Spirit of Reconciliation

Lincoln's 2nd inaugural address emphasized healing, contingent upon the ratification of the 13th Amendment.

Initial Plans for Reconstruction

• General Amnesty: Offered to those who took an oath of loyalty to the USA and pledged to obey federal laws regarding

Between 1814-1815 the powers that defeated Napoleon (United Kingdom, Austria, Prussia, and Russia) met at the Congress of Vienna, with two objectives:

• Restore the old regime

They returned to their thrones the monarchs that Napoleon had deposed.

• Rebuild the political map of Europe

France returned to its limits of 1791 and the territories were divided, without counting on some towns.

It was agreed to convene congresses, where diplomatically conflicts between countries would be resolved and intervention was authorized in those countries threatened by a revolution.

• Two alliances were created to ensure the established order:

• The Holy Alliance formed by Austria, Russia, and Prussia
• The Quadruple Alliance formed by Austria, Russia, Prussia, and United Kingdom

New

1. Iron Curtain: Division of Europe into mostly democratic (west) and communist (east)

2. Containment: Foreign policy, Harry Truman blocked Soviet influence to stop the spread of communism

3. Brinkmanship: Policy under Eisenhower where our country would go to the edge of war

4. Castro: Cuban Communist dictator

5. Nikita Khrushchev: Took over after Stalin

6. JFK: President 1960-1963 and during Cuban missile crisis

7. Douglas MacArthur: General of UN troops in Korean War

8. Domino Theory: Idea that if one country becomes Communist, others will follow

9. UN: Organization of nations to solve world problems

10. Marshall Plan: US assisted West Europe by providing food, machinery, and materials

11. Cold War: Communist (USSR) vs democracy (America)

12. Warsaw Pact: Alliance of USSR with other Eastern

The French Revolution and Its Political Impact

Legislation enacted in 1790 abolished the Church's authority to levy a tax on crops, cancelled special privileges for the clergy, and confiscated Church property.

• The government introduced a new paper currency.
• Royalist democrats and the National Party were the two new main parties of France.
• Political "clubs" in French politics were on the rise.
• King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette were arrested and later beheaded.
• The Constitution of 1791 was signed by the king (who was forced to do so), and from then on, France functioned as a constitutional monarchy.

The Reign of Terror and the Three Estates

Many people were beheaded on the guillotine because they were seen as counter-revolutionaries and therefore... Continue reading "The French Revolution and Latin American Independence" »

America as we know it today comes from this time. During this era, there was significant political radicalism. The Sedition Act occurred, and with it, any "ism" not Republican or Democrat was eliminated. Activities considered anti-American included the "Red Scare" (where America rejected communism totally), socialism (maintaining a two-party system of Republicans and Democrats), and anarchism (where radicals used to set off bombs).

The Noble Experiment: Prohibition and Its Failures

Alcoholic beverages were forbidden under the "Noble Experiment," which was a total failure. With this prohibition, temperance movements arrived. Intoxicating liquors were banned, and a new slang was created, including terms like:

• Bootlegging
• Speakeasy
• Moonshine
• Rum running
• Bathtub

The Carlist Wars: Spain's Defining 19th-Century Conflicts

These wars explain much about the problems associated with state building in modern Spain. They were not simply dynastic struggles; there were also conflicts between the Carlists (supporters of the Old Regime) and the Isabelines (in favor of liberal constitutionalism). Moreover, they can also be considered a war between high-class citizens (urban populations) and poor peasants (rural segments).

The First Carlist War (1833-1840)

The end of Ferdinand VII's regency allowed Mª Cristina to ascend to the throne until Isabella II could reign the country. This was possible due to the elimination of the Salic Law, which did not allow women to inherit the throne, and the promulgation of the Pragmatic

The Origins of the Kingdom of Asturias

After invading in 711, the Muslims conquered almost all of the Iberian Peninsula. In the Cordillera Cantábrica, a small group of Visigothic Christians survived the Muslim conquest and established the Kingdom of Asturias. Among these Visigothic nobles was Pelayo, who later defeated the Muslims for the first time in 722 at the Battle of Covadonga. His successors, Alfonso I and Alfonso II, established Oviedo as the capital and expanded the kingdom into Galicia.

The Rise of the Kingdom of Leon and Castile

In the second half of the 9th century, Alfonso III took control of the territory north of the Duero River. The kingdom was renamed the Kingdom of Leon, with the city of Leon as its capital. Alfonso III built... Continue reading "The Reconquista: Origins of Medieval Spanish Kingdoms" »