Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Demographic Impact and Exile

The Spanish Civil War left a devastating demographic toll. Reliable data indicates approximately 300,000 fatalities directly from fighting and repression. An additional 170,000 deaths are attributed to indirect causes in the rear, such as hunger, disease, and bombings, directly related to the conflict. This increased mortality was compounded by a significant decrease in the birthrate.

Repression by both sides against perceived enemies also contributed to a large number of victims. The post-war repression alone caused an estimated 40,000 casualties.

A massive exodus of refugees occurred, particularly towards the French border from Catalonia, involving approximately 500,000 people. While many eventually returned, others...

The 19th Century Industrial Revolution in Europe

The 19th century in Europe witnessed a large industrial and political development, along with advancements in boat technology and the steam railway, as well as electricity. This was also the period of consolidation of constitutional liberal states, the rise of Italy and Germany, the expansion of the labor movement, improvements in living standards, and demographic growth. All of this, together with scientific and technological progress, led to a new industrial revolution, which can be divided into two stages of early development and industrialization marked by transformations.

The crowd favors momentum as industrializing powers seek new markets and sources of raw materials. For reasons of national...

Dominant Europe: Colonialism in the 19th Century

Causes of Colonialism

In the last third of the 19th century, Europe, by exploiting its superior technical and financial capabilities, set out to conquer Africa and Asia, as there were more colonial empires in Europe. The territories created several causes of colonialism:

• Economic Factors: European powers sought new markets and raw materials. They wanted to buy better materials at other places where labor was cheaper and more profitable.
• Demographic Factors: There was an excess of population in Europe, causing difficulties in finding jobs and increasing social tensions. Colonial policy meant the possibility of emigrating to other lands and improving living and labor conditions.
• Political Factors: The

Item 4: Spain's History from 1868 to 1890

The Glorious Revolution and its Aftermath

After the Glorious Revolution occurred in Cadiz, where General Prim defeated the troops of Queen Elizabeth II, she was exiled to France in 1868. The courts adopted a democratic constitution and monarchy that included:

• Universal male suffrage
• Religious freedom
• The division of powers: executive, legislative, and judicial
• Party fragmentation

King Amadeo I of Savoy faced a difficult situation after the start of the war in Cuba and the Third Carlist War. He abdicated in 1873.

The First Spanish Republic

The First Republic was established with Francisco Pi y Margall as president. The country's continuing instability and the constitution that was created for the Republic did...

The Crisis of 1917 in Spain: A Turning Point

In 1917, a serious crisis emerged in Spain, exposing the inherent weaknesses of the Canovista system. This period was marked by significant internal and external pressures.

Causes of the Crisis

• Internal Division and Policy Vacuum: The dynastic parties suffered from deep internal divisions and a notable lack of relevant policies to address the nation's growing challenges.
• Economic Impact of World War I: Although Spain was neutral, the First World War provoked a sharp global price rise for essential products. This led to a significant decrease in the purchasing power of the working class, fueling widespread discontent.
• Influence of the Russian Revolution: The success of the Russian Revolution in 1917 awakened

Catalan Nationalism and the Basque Nationalist Defense

As a Catalan nationalist defense of the charters, an atmosphere was created, but other characteristics of the modern middle class were not found. Provincial legislation to repeal the historical and philosophical impact of two answers: the use of a particular situation and giving up some of the concert in Madrid, while other economic traditionalism into the charters, maintaining a full recovery was made in favor of.

These were lost in the Carlist War, and the charters for them to leave the entire defense of *euskaltasunaren* cord. Sabino Arana was the driving force behind the nineties *Euskara Abertsaletasunaren hamrkdan*. Social ideas were tied together and were clear. The old motto was God...

T5. The War of Independence (Carlos IV)

Spain went to war against France (1793-1795). Spain was defeated and signed a treaty making it an ally of France. In 1807, the two countries signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau, agreeing to invade Portugal, which required passage through Spain. This French presence in Spanish territory created unease. Fernando instigated the Mutiny of Aranjuez, which provoked Charles IV to abdicate in favor of his son, Fernando VII. Napoleon summoned the royal family to Bayonne and forced them to abdicate in favor of his brother, Joseph Bonaparte. Before the abductions, on May 2, 1808, the war began in Zaragoza and Gerona. Cities such as these were under siege, and there were also guerrilla actions. In 1813, the Treaty

The Great Depression and Global Consequences

The U.S. crisis extended globally, stretching the world economy to its limits. Consequences included:

• Demographic Shifts: The crisis halted population growth and transoceanic economic migrations.
• Economic Decline: Decreased agricultural and industrial production, severely impacting foreign trade.
• Mass Unemployment.
• Political Instability: The crisis favored the rise of political ideologies and totalitarianism, challenging existing democracies.

Seeking Solutions: Autarky and the New Deal

To solve the crisis, some countries promoted economic self-sufficiency (autarky) and the creation and intervention of State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs) in the economy.

U.S. President Roosevelt launched a recovery program in 1933...

14th Century

Scottish Independence

• 1305: William Wallace killed
• 1314: Battle of Bannockburn - Scotland becomes independent from England under King Robert the Bruce I.

The Hundred Years War (1339-1453)

• The House of Valois
• The House of Plantagenet (or Anjou) - Edward III claims the throne of England and France.

The Black Death (c.1348)

The Black Death affected all of Europe, killing between 30% and 60% of the population. This had a significant impact on the social structure and was one of the worst pandemics in history. It also dealt a blow to the Roman Catholic Church, as their efforts to care for the sick led to infections and blame being directed towards Rome. This also led to the persecution of minorities (Jews, foreigners, beggars, lepers) who were...

Historical Periods of the Middle East

The history of the Middle East can be divided into different historical periods, but three of them are especially important to understand today's governance and conflicts: the Ottoman Empire, the colonial period after the First World War, and the contemporary Middle East. In each period, imperialism, nationalism, ideological projects, and the involvement of great powers influenced the region in different ways.

The Ottoman Empire and Indirect Rule

The first important period is the Ottoman Empire. During this time, the Middle East was ruled by a large empire that controlled many different peoples and religions. The Ottoman Empire used mainly indirect rule, allowing local elites to govern while remaining loyal...