Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Italian Fascism

Postwar Italy

The end of the Great War left Italy with serious human and economic consequences. 700,000 men were killed, many industries were unserviceable, and foreign debt and high inflation had increased. The peace accords were a big disappointment, as the Allies agreed to the surrender to Italy of the Trentino, Trieste, Istria, and Dalmatia, but not Fiume, as agreed in the Treaty of London (1915). There was great political instability since between 1919 and 1922, five different governments were formed. The economic crisis created strong social tension.

The Rise of Fascism

In this critical situation, Benito Mussolini appeared. In 1919, he created the Fasci fighters, called Blackshirts. In 1921, the Fascists were transformed into...

The Stalinist totalitarian state's territorial expansion, along with German, Italian, and Japanese expansionism, and the anti-Comintern pact, provoked the rupture of democratic nations (Britain and France). The implementation of a policy of appeasement and the formation of the Axis (Berlin-Rome-Tokyo) through cooperation agreements in 1936 set the stage for conflict. Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, triggering the war.

The War's Phases

Phase 1

Germany quickly conquered Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France using blitzkrieg tactics. Hitler's attempt to invade England failed in the Battle of Britain. Germany then pressured Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Slovakia to join the Axis. In 1941, Germany invaded Yugoslavia and...

The Conservative Reformist: The Reign of Alfonso XIII

The age of Alfonso XIII began with a crisis caused by the disaster of '98 that led the dynastic parties to initiate a reform program for the regeneration of Spanish political life. The conservative governments of Antonio Maura tried, until 1909, some reforms of finance, local government, and the electoral law, but this attempt was a failure. While Turno parties were losing influence, the opposition grew stronger:

• The Republicans increased their electoral ascendancy with the creation of the European Radical Republican Party.
• The Catalan nationalist groups reached a broad electoral victory, thanks to the Catalan Solidarity.
• Socialism and trade unions (UGT) consolidated their presence in Madrid,

The League of Nations: A Quest for International Peace

The League of Nations was established after the First World War to ensure peace and order in international relations. However, it faced several drawbacks, including the dominance of France and Britain, whose veto power allowed them to defend their national interests, and the technical inability to effectively prevent conflicts. The absence of major powers like the USA and the USSR also hindered its effectiveness.

Despite these difficulties, the League contributed to maintaining international peace and collective security, particularly during the implementation of peace treaties (1919-1924). France, for example, demanded war reparations from Germany, but Germany struggled to pay due to its...

Religious Conflict and the Rise of Tolerance

Both the Catholic and Huguenot sides insisted on old medieval ideas. For Catholics, a Protestant monarch was a heretic and a Catholic usurper of a throne. The theory and practice of regicide is rooted in the theory of John of Salisbury and Thomas Aquinas. But the most interesting reflections giving rise to the conflict are those of the authors of a moderate party and the conciliators, Les Politiques, among whom were La Boetie, Michel de l'Hopital, and Bodin, who understood that religious pluralism is a necessity if you want to restore social peace, thus inaugurating the path of religious tolerance.

Machiavelli and Anti-Machiavellianism

Niccolo Machiavelli developed his work in Renaissance Florence....

The Spanish Civil War: A Divided Nation

In late July 1936, Spain was divided into two main areas: one controlled by the Republicans and the other by the rebels. The rebel-held territories included parts of Andalucia, Castilla y Leon, Galicia, the Balearic Islands, and a sector of Aragon and Extremadura. These were primarily agricultural areas with a conservative political orientation.

The Republican territories encompassed the North, Catalonia, the entire Levant, Madrid, Castilla-La Mancha, and part of Andalucia. These areas included major cities, industrial centers, and a large working-class population.

The Advance Towards Madrid

The rebels' strategy focused on advancing from the south towards Madrid, aiming to capture the capital quickly. By...

Neoclassicism: A Second Wave of Greco-Roman Influence

Neoclassicism represents the second wave of Greco-Roman revival in art. This movement emerged in central Italy during the early 18th century, partly fueled by archaeological discoveries in Pompeii and a rejection of the late Baroque style.

The Goal of Neoclassicism

The ultimate aim of Neoclassicism was to create a perfect society by instilling classical values of reason and morality through art. It sought to showcase the splendor of a civilized society grounded in civic virtues.

Two Phases of Development

The movement unfolded in two phases. The first, centered in Rome around 1755, is represented by figures like Winckelmann (imitation of the ancients) and Mengs (art over nature).

The second phase,...

Spain Under Franco's Rule: Transformation and Transition

1. Repression and Ideology (1939-1975)

Franco's dictatorship repressed Marxism, communism, and liberal democratic institutions. It drew support from nationalism and Catholicism, particularly from the military and clergy. The regime's foundations were authoritarian monarchy and corporatism, with supporters including the Falange, Carlists, Alfonsinos Monarchists, Opus Dei (technocrats), and ACNP.

2. Collaboration and Shifting Alliances

2.1 Axis Collaboration (1939-1941)

Initially neutral in World War II, Spain under Franco met with Hitler in 1941 and sent the Blue Division to Germany. This period saw modest economic recovery.

2.2 Allied Collaboration (1942-1957)

With the Cold War's onset and...

Social Decline & PSOE's Waning Power

A general strike called by CCOO and UGT in 1988 marked the beginning of the end for the socialist era nationwide. The protest on December 14, 1988, against the government, initiated a capitalist turn, fueling tensions and internal divisions within the PSOE. On the horizon, a feeble opposition existed but with a renewed spirit: the People's Party (PP) emerged, revitalized under a new protagonist, José María Aznar. Initially undervalued, Aznar gradually matured, implementing an effective policy. The PSOE became more fragmented, with the emergence of factions like the 'Guerristas'. There were talks of widespread corruption, casting doubt on the honesty of the President of the Government. As a consequence,...

Consequences of Colonial Imperialism

The most important transformations resulting from colonial imperialism were:

Economic Impacts

Colonies experienced exploitation of their natural and human resources, specialization in single crops, and forced purchases of manufactured goods from the metropolis.

Demographic and Social Impacts

Colonial populations increased due to European immigration and improved health and hygiene practices implemented by the metropolis, leading to a decline in indigenous mortality. However, racial segregation marginalized indigenous populations, establishing European dominance.

Political Impacts

Colonizing countries used colonies to settle rivalries.

Cultural Impacts

Western culture was imposed upon indigenous cultures, transforming...