Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Unifications of Italy and Germany

The territory occupied by present-day Italy was divided into six independent states. Austria had annexed the two northern regions (Piedmont and Lombardy), which were the richest. Thus, unification seemed difficult. However, in 1859, Cavour, the leader of the Piedmontese government, started a war with Austria and achieved the annexation of Lombardy. Meanwhile, Garibaldi led several popular uprisings aimed at the unification of the territories of the peninsula. In 1861, the first Italian parliament appointed King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy. Only Veneto remained in Austrian hands, but it was abandoned in 1866. The unification was completed in 1870 after the Papal States were annexed, and Rome was named the capital...

The First Phase of Independence (1808–1815)

It all started after the power vacuum that was created in Spain during the War of Independence. In 1810, various boards were organized, which began to form their own armies and establish diplomatic relations with the United States and Britain. Even liberal revolutionary governments were formed, which promulgated Constitutions and assumed a republican regime.

The return of King Ferdinand VII to the throne in 1814 marked the restoration of Spanish power, which regained all lost territories except the Río de la Plata.

The Second Phase of Independence (1817–1824)

The absolutist restoration of Ferdinand VII was intolerable to the colonies and favored the success of the insurgents.

Liberation of the South

Political Developments in Castile (14th–15th Centuries)

After the death of Alfonso X in 1284, Castile faced a severe succession crisis involving the heirs of his eldest son, Fernando de la Cerda, and his successor, Sancho IV. The crown initially weakened against the powerful nobility.

However, royal authority found support in the Brotherhoods (armed protective forces organized by Castilian towns).

Reestablishment of Royal Authority

• Alfonso XI (1312–1350): Reestablished strong royal authority, notably through the implementation of a new judicial system, the Ordinances of Alcalá (1348).

The Civil War and the Rise of Trastámara

Pedro I the Cruel (1350–1369) faced significant challenges:

• Conflict with the Kingdom of Aragon (the War of the Two

Spain's Moderate Era: Church, State, and Reform

The moderate government sought to improve relations with the Church. It signed a concordat with the Holy See, which provided for the suspension of the sale of disentailed church property and the return of vendidos. The Holy See recognized Elizabeth II and accepted the disentailment, while the state committed to supporting the Spanish Church, regular orders, and the recognition of Catholicism as the official religion of the country.

Consolidating the Liberal State

Moderantismo aimed to consolidate the structure of the new liberal state under the principles of centralism, hierarchy, and uniformity. Additionally, the government approved the Criminal Code, drafted the Civil Code, reformed public administration,...

The Liberal Republic (1861-1891)

Aníbal Pinto G. (President)

• Allowed the entry of women to the University
• Secondary Education Act
• Faced regalist government positions
• International Economic Crisis
• Started the Pacific War
• Gave away Patagonia
• Home pacification of Araucanía

Domingo Santa María (President)

• Secular laws
• Cemeteries Lay Act
• Creation of civil registration and civil marriage
• Further extension of the law of incompatibility
• Gave away Patagonia
• End of the Pacific War

José Manuel Balmaceda (President)

• Founded the Catholic University
• Pedagogical Institute
• Civil War
• MOP Foundation
• Railroad construction
• Upgrading of roads
• Water supply

The Pacific War (War of the Pacific)

Causes

Economic: Seizing the rich nitrate zone (Peru, Chile, and Bolivia) to face the 1878 global...

1. Economic Policies

What are economic policies? Strategies or packages designed by governments regarding the economic driving of their country.

2. Administrative Policy Organization

Based on an administrative policy, an organization composed of various local authorities with some capacity for self-government, but dependent on the central government for main functions, is referred to as:

3. Mercantilism

"Colbert only seeks that the French are able to dispense with all other peoples (...) One of the main causes of the shortage of money in France, in the midst of such plenty of corn and wine, comes from the Dutchmen no longer seeking them, as they did in the past, because our conduct with regard to trade with them clearly shows that we do not want

The formation of nation-states across much of Western Europe began with the creation of unitary states in the 17th and 18th centuries. Later, the Industrial Revolution spurred the need for unified national markets. This led to the elimination of internal customs, the standardization of weights and measures, and the establishment of commercial codes. The liberal revolutions further stimulated the development of the concept of a nation.

Liberal and Romantic Views of the Nation

Liberal thought, inheriting the legacy of the French Revolution, defined a nation as a group of people united by history, language, or culture, and—above all—by the desire to live together under common laws and institutions. Contrasting this, some late 18th-century...

The Rise of Modern Imperialism (Post-1880)

After 1880, European colonialism was directed towards Africa, Asia, and the Pacific. This colonial expansion was based on the conquest and economic exploitation of these territories, a process known as imperialism.

Causes of Colonial Expansion

The causes driving this expansion were varied:

• Economic: The need for markets to ensure the placement of manufactured goods, raw material supply, and financial investment.
• Political: The desire to control great trade routes (especially towards India), seeking international prestige, or strengthening national sentiment.
• Ideological: Based on the supposed supremacy of the white race and its historic mission of extending civilization.

Global Distribution and the Berlin

Former Allies: Capitalism vs. Socialism

Following the removal of fascist powers, two dominant ideologies remained in the Western political landscape: capitalism, spearheaded by the United States, and socialism, led by the USSR during the 19th century.

• Capitalism, adopted by many countries including America and Japan, was based on private property, free trade with minimal state intervention, and a liberal-democratic system characterized by class differentiation, parliaments, and elected governments.
• Socialism, or Communism, as practiced in the USSR, diverged significantly. It rejected private property, embraced a state-controlled economy, and aimed to eliminate social classes.

Both superpowers sought to expand their influence, leading to a period...

Peace Treaties After World War I

The Treaty of Versailles forced Germany to take responsibility for the war. Germany returned Alsace and Lorraine to France and consented to the occupation of the Saarland. East Prussia was cut off by the Danzig corridor. Germany delivered its colonies, accepted the demilitarization of the Rhineland, and reduced its army and arsenals.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire dissolved, and Czechoslovakia was formed. Italy made only small territorial gains. Romania grew with territories from Hungary and Russia. Hungary and Austria were reduced to small, landlocked states. Bulgaria had to surrender its Aegean coast to Greece. The Ottoman Empire disappeared and was replaced by a republic. Its Arab territories were given as mandates....