Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Middle East Conflict and Cold War Context

The proclamation of the State of Israel in 1948 led to the first war with Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon, who did not accept the existence of Israel at the expense of Palestine. This period saw the founding of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).

Key Arab-Israeli Wars

The Second Arab-Israeli War (1956) occurred during the Suez Crisis, following an Israeli attack on Egypt. The Third Arab-Israeli War (1967), known as the Six-Day War, involved Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. Israel responded rapidly with its troops under the command of Moshe Dayan. The Fourth Arab-Israeli War (1973) broke out during the Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur, hence its name, the Yom Kippur War. Egypt and Syria launched a surprise...

Causes of European Discoveries

The Europeans needed to find new commercial routes to the East because, in 1453, the Turks captured Constantinople. This disrupted trade routes between Europe and the Far East.

Technical Advances

New maps, portulans, were designed especially for navigation. They drew the lines of the maritime coast and the obstacles. These indicated the shortest distance between ports using straight lines.

Portuguese Shipments

Portuguese expeditions inched forward. First, they incorporated the Madeira and Azores islands into their territories. Then, they headed south and skirted the coast of Africa. They doubled Cape Bojador and reached the Gulf of Guinea.

In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope.

Vasco da Gama arrived...

Spain's Political Turmoil: From Bourbon Succession to Napoleonic Invasion

The abrogation of the Salic Law, which traditionally prevented women from inheriting the Spanish throne, sparked significant political unrest. This measure was vehemently opposed by Don Carlos, brother of King Ferdinand VII and until then the designated successor, who garnered the support of absolutist factions. Consequently, Maria Cristina, Ferdinand VII's wife, who assumed the regency during the King's final months, was compelled to seek the backing of moderate liberals. This alliance marked a crucial rapprochement between the liberal movement and the monarchy, setting the stage for future conflicts.

The Reign of Charles IV and the French Revolution's Shadow

The political...

Challenges Facing the Second Spanish Republic (1931)

The endemic problems of the Second Republic were immediately apparent, summarized by deep social conflicts involving the less fortunate classes, profound distrust from businessmen, and staunch opposition from the Church and the military.

Economic Instability and the 1929 Crash

The economy suffered heavily under the weight of the 1929 Depression, which severely impacted the value of the peseta. This period was characterized by:

• Widespread distrust among businessmen.
• Measures that highly favored workers, often alienating capital owners.
• Inherited problems, including the trade balance deficit left by the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera.
• An endemic agrarian problem in the countryside.

The most radical...

The Defeat of the Almohads and the Rise of the Nasrid Kingdom

In 1212, a coalition of Christian kings decisively defeated the Almohad Caliphate, paving the way for the conquest of the Guadalquivir Valley. Following the fall of the Taifa of Seville, only the small Nasrid Kingdom of Granada remained, until its eventual conquest by the Catholic Monarchs in 1492.

Andalusian Economic and Social Organization

The Andalusian economy was primarily urban, although a significant portion of the population was employed in agriculture. Production was geared towards the market, encompassing both agricultural and industrial goods. Agriculture achieved high performance through innovative irrigation systems and the introduction of industrial and medicinal plants,...

Political Evolution of Capitalism in the 1970s

The 1970s witnessed significant political shifts within capitalist nations, notably the removal of military dictatorships in Spain, Greece, and Portugal. This era also saw the emergence of Eurocommunism, a movement by which European communist parties accepted parliamentary means to gain power.

Economic Evolution of Capitalism: The Western Bloc Crisis (1973-1981)

The Western Bloc experienced a severe economic crisis from 1973 to 1981. Its primary causes included:

• The decision by the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) to embargo oil sales to countries that had supported Israel.
• A subsequent tripling of oil prices.

The consequences of this crisis were widespread, leading to:

• Higher

European Colonial Imperialism

Demographic and Social: European population growth stimulated unemployment and emigration to the colonies.

Political: Due to strained international relations, European governments controlled strategic points to increase their strength.

Scientists: A desire to explore new territory.

Cultural: The belief that the white race was superior led to advances made to transmit European culture and Christianity.

Metropolis = The ruling power beyond its borders.

Colonies = Territories politically and economically dependent on a metropolis.

The Colonial Empires

The United Kingdom and France were the major colonial powers:

• UK: In the early twentieth century, it was the world's leading maritime power, and its empire was the largest in

Understanding Imperialism (1875-1914)

Imperialism: A historical phenomenon that developed further between 1875 and 1914. It involved a set of European countries, Japan, and the U.S. colonizing other countries in Africa, Asia, and America.

What is Protectionism?

Protectionism: Is the increase in tariffs, making products from other countries more expensive.

Causes of Imperialism

• Economic: The mother country sold goods in the colony, invested capital, exploited labor, and obtained cheaper raw materials.
• Political: To be a major power, a country needed colonies.
• Strategic: Seizing areas near coastal regions was important.
• Demographic: Colonies served as an outlet for excess population.
• Cultural: The idea of civilizing other areas.

The Era of Armed Peace

1. Analysis of a Primary Source:

a) Source Type: This document is a primary source because the facts and details are contemporary to the events described. The author is reporting on events as they unfold.

b) Classification: It can be classified as a historical-circumstantial piece, reflecting the author's opinion and the historical events of the time. It is a newspaper article published during the Cold War.

c) Context: The document refers to the 1956 Soviet invasion of Hungary by Warsaw Pact forces, ordered by Khrushchev. The invasion was a response to Hungary's attempt to pursue an independent and sovereign policy, which the Soviets feared would cause a domino effect and destabilize the communist bloc. The Soviets used force to ensure that Eastern...

The First Spanish Republic: A Brief and Turbulent Period (1873-1874)

The Abdication of Amadeo I and the Proclamation of the Republic

The situation became increasingly difficult with the conspiracy of Cánovas, who favored the restoration of the Bourbons. This culminated in the abdication of Amadeo I on February 11, 1873. That same day, the House of Representatives and the Senate, in a National Assembly, proclaimed the First Spanish Republic. This Republic was born from a fragile alliance of radical and republican unitarians, but it was not recognized by France or the United Kingdom. Within Spain, support for the Republic was limited to a sector of the liberal bourgeoisie and some labor elements. Adding to the political crisis was an economic...