Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The NAACP's Fight Against Lynching

Introduction

During the 1930s, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) fought tirelessly to pass anti-lynching bills in the United States. However, their efforts were met with fierce resistance from Southern Democrats, who used a variety of tactics to ensure the defeat of these bills.

The New Deal and Civil Rights

The New Deal, a series of economic and social reforms enacted by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, brought about significant political, social, and economic changes in the United States. However, African Americans were still not treated equally. New Deal agencies failed to provide work and welfare support for African Americans, and the main culprits were Southern Democrats...

Axis Victories (1939-1941)

Axis Powers: Japan, Italy, and Germany

Following the invasion of Poland in September 1939, Hitler initiated the 'Blitzkrieg' (lightning war) strategy, employing surprise attacks, aerial support, and Panzer divisions. Poland was subsequently divided between the USSR and Germany.

In 1940, Germany invaded and occupied much of Western Europe, including Norway, the Netherlands, Denmark, Belgium, and France. Great Britain remained the sole nation resisting German occupation. To prepare for a potential invasion of Britain, the German air force launched bombing campaigns on British ports and cities during the Battle of Britain. Britain successfully resisted the attacks, prompting Hitler to shift his strategy and impose a blockade...

The Urban Society

Bourgeoisie: a new social group emerged in these cities. They were not tied to a lord or participated in the feudal relations. They were merchants and bankers, and quickly became the richest citizens.

• There was also a poorer population: servants, laborers, beggars, or fugitive serfs who did the hard work.
• Many towns had a Jewish population who lived in Jewish quarters or ghettos.
• There were also Moorish quarters, where the Muslims lived.

The Economy of a Medieval City

Trade: the most important function of a city. Usually, the cities celebrated fairs, where people from other cities came to sell their products.

• Currency: in the Early Middle Ages, the Roman currency was replaced by bartering. But now, we can see gold coins again working

Consequences of Imperialism (Colonies)

Demographic Growth: Increased due to a decrease in mortality thanks to improvements in hygiene and health. However, it also led to starvation and poverty in some regions.

Destruction of Ethnic Structures: Indigenous artisan crafts could not compete with manufactured goods from the colonists and gradually disappeared.

Resource Exploitation: Colonies practiced single-crop agriculture serving the colonial power's domestic needs. Industrialization was suppressed, and colonies primarily provided raw materials and markets. Mining was also significant.

Cultural Imposition: European languages, religions, and cultures were imposed, relegating indigenous cultures to a secondary status.

Artificial Borders: Colonization...

The Republic (1873-1874)

After the abdication, the Cortes voted the Republic as the new form of government. However, the regime was unstable, headed by a political minority, the Republicans, who were themselves divided into those in favor of a unitary state, those in favor of a federal one, and finally the supporters of a presidential Republic.

These disputes undermined the credibility of the Republic. Therefore, the monarchists (such as Cánovas del Castillo), supporting the candidature of Isabella's son, Prince Alfonso of Bourbon, began to pave the peaceful way to the restoration of the monarchy, which they wanted to identify with political tradition and stability.

Eventually, it was a military coup (led by General Pavia) that really ended the...

1.1. Political Systems (1870–1914)

Two different political systems coexisted between 1870 and 1914:

Parliamentary Systems in Western Europe

Parliamentary systems prevailed in Western Europe. Thus, many countries adopted universal male suffrage, while suffragette movements began to arise, claiming the vote for women. Outside Europe, the United States adopted universal male suffrage and Japan introduced a parliamentary system.

Autocratic Systems in Central and Eastern Europe

Autocratic systems persisted in Central and Eastern Europe:

• Austro-Hungarian Empire: Consisted of multiple nationalities. Beginning in 1867, it became a dual monarchy formed by two crowns, each with its own organization (Austria and Hungary), while retaining a common foreign

Germanic invasions: 'Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum'

Official account of the Germanic invasions (449). Angles in Britain first drove the enemy, after they made a league with them and went against their allies. The Heptarchy: 7 Anglo-Saxon 'kingdoms' - Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex. England as a politically unified nation in the 10th century.

Dialects of Old English:

River Humber, River Thames, South, South/South-West.

The Germanic occupation of Britain was cruel, and most Britons died. The culture of Britons was not assimilated by Germanic tribes. Atheling (royal family), Earl (major nobility), Thegn (Minor nobility), Freemen, and Serf. Conversion of Germanic invaders to Christianity: Christianity was brought...

Collectivisation

The USSR needed to produce more food, so increasing production was essential. The majority of peasants were poor and lacked equipment for working the land. The kulaks were rich peasants who were influential in villages but annoyed the Communist Party. Stalin began collectivising all farms: peasants worked together on lands, and when the harvest was collected, a part was sold to the government at a low price, the rest for peasants. They were forced to collectivise. The problem with collectivisation was that due to the speed of the change, their traditional way of life was destroyed. Kulaks resisted the change. The new exploitations were forced to grow particular crops needed for industry and had to supply a specific amount to...

Humanism (15th and 16th Centuries)

The philosophy which introduced modern times by shifting from the Church-centered preoccupation of the Middle Ages to focus on the needs and aspirations of the individual. Instead of worrying about the afterlife, people concentrated on the here and now.

Johannes Gutenberg (1450)

He was the German goldsmith who developed movable type and the printing press. Printing led to a communications revolution and encouraged individualistic thinking and initiative, which became the cornerstone of today’s capitalist system.

Martin Luther (1520)

The German friar whose attempts to reform the Church led to the Protestant Reformation. His work resulted in a century of religious warfare, a permanent split within the faith, and...

The Cold War: A Global Political Rivalry

The Cold War was a political rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies that developed after World War II.

The conflict began after the surrender of Nazi Germany in 1945, when the alliance between the United States and Great Britain on one side and the Soviet Union on the other started to fall apart. The Soviet Union began to establish left-wing governments in the countries of Eastern Europe, determined to safeguard against Germany. The Americans and the British worried that Soviet domination in Eastern Europe might be permanent.

The Cold War was solidified by 1947–48, when U.S. aid brought certain Western countries under American influence and the Soviets established...