European Revolutions and Unifications: 1820s-1870s

The Revolutions of the 1820s

In Spain and Portugal, there were liberal revolutions that aimed to establish constitutional monarchies. In Spain, absolutism was re-established after The Liberal Triennium.

Greece wanted independence from the Ottoman Empire. A liberal-nationalist revolution began; it was supported by other European countries (Russia, Great Britain, and France). The Treaty of Adrianople recognized Greek independence.

The Revolutions of the 1830s

Belgium wanted independence from Holland, with which it was united to form the Netherlands. These two countries had many differences, including language and religion (most Belgians were Catholics and most Dutch were Protestants). Leopold I became Belgium's constitutional monarch.

During the Restoration in France, the Bourbons had returned to the throne: first, Louis XVIII and then Charles X. The revolution began when Charles approved various decrees, such as the restriction of press freedom, without consulting the Legislative Assembly. After his abdication, the assembly voted for a new king. They chose Louis Philippe of Orleans, who ruled as a constitutional monarch.

The Revolutions of 1848

In France, the petite bourgeoisie and workers were successful in establishing universal manhood suffrage. After Louis Philippe abdicated, the Second Republic was established. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (Napoleon's nephew) was elected president. He then staged a coup _{(realizó un golpe de estado)} and proclaimed himself emperor. He ruled France as Napoleon III, although he maintained universal manhood suffrage.

Nationalist Movements

Italian Unification

Various factors contributed to Italian unification:

• The Congress of Vienna left the Italian Peninsula divided into seven states. Some of these states, including Lombardy-Venetia, were under Austrian control.
• Nationalist and liberal successes in other countries (Belgium, Greece).
• The failure of the Revolutions.
• Charles Albert wanted to unite Italy. He declared war on Austria but was defeated.
• Important figures supported Italian unification, including Napoleon III, Victor Emmanuel II, and Cavour.

German Unification

Various factors contributed to German unification:

• The German Confederation was divided into 39 states, united by the federal Diet.
• Liberal and nationalist ideas were popular in Germany.
• During the Revolution, the Frankfurt Parliament tried to create a unified state with universal manhood suffrage. The attempt failed due to opposition from Austria and Prussia.
• A customs union was established.
• Bismarck started the process of unification. In Prussia, nationalism was strong, it had a large army and a developed economy. Bismarck expelled _(expulsó) the Austrians from the German Confederation after the Battle of Sadowa, and achieved _(logró) the unification of the northern states.

In the second phase of unification, Bismarck defeated Napoleon III, who wanted to limit Prussian expansion. After this victory, the German princes decided to unite with Prussia. Germany became the Second Reich, and the unification process ended. Berlin became the capital, and Wilhelm I became emperor.

Consequences of Italian and German Unifications

Both unifications affected European international relations. The German Empire became Europe's dominant power. The Austro-Hungarian Empire lost power, which affected both Italy and Germany. Following France's defeat by Prussia, Napoleon III was replaced by the Third Republic. The Russian Empire decided to expand towards the Balkans to gain access to the Mediterranean Sea.