Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Before Henry I, the two moments belonged to the king because bishops were feudal lords in first place, so the king had the right to choose them. In times of Henry II, the church is going to have a reform known as the Gregorian Reform, and one of the things that the church wanted was to be independent from the king. So this was the first battle, the first moment of tension between the King and the Church.

There was an agreement and Henry I retained the right to choose the bishop, but then the ceremony remained totally religious. So to the eyes of the world it was the Church who invested the bishop.

Henry I had one daughter, Mathilda, but he had no male heirs. That was a problem because it had never been a woman ruling England. Mathilda was married

The new king is going to be Henry III (1216-1272), Son of John. He is going to succeed his father at the age of 9, so there was a Regent supervising his decisions. We have to wait some years until henry Becomes king and begin to rule the kingdom himself. But he made some wrong Decisions:

For one thing he surrounded himself With a number of favourites, which were not Contemplated with very good eyes by the rest of the nobility. The favourites Occupied places of responsibility.
 The second problem is that during his Reign he broke a number of points contained in the Magna Carta. This is because The degree of control was very high and it was difficult for kings to accept All the points in it. This situation lead to what happened in the year 1258:... Continue reading "The Reign of Henry III and the Rise of Parliament in England" »

American Involvement in World War I

• After the outbreak of war in 1914, the USA declared itself neutral, arguing that it was a European conflict that did not concern America.

• Initially, public opinion was in favor of staying out of the war, despite strong sympathies for Britain and her Allies, and the potential damage to U.S. economic interests.

• President Wilson sent his aide Colonel House to try to broker a peace, but to no avail.

• In 1915, circumstances changed when the British passenger liner Lusitania was sunk by a German U-boat, killing 1,200 including 128 Americans.

• Wilson demanded an immediate end to unrestricted submarine warfare, but his declaration that America was ‘too proud to fight’, meaning that America should... Continue reading "American Involvement in World War I & II: From Neutrality to Victory" »

Then a second woman appeared in his life, Anne Boleyn. This fact, together with the impossibility of having a son with Catherine, led him to want to end his marriage. However, it was difficult because Catherine was the aunt of Charles V, who sacked Rome and imprisoned the Pope, so he could not dissolve the matrimony. To solve the problem, he created a parallel church in England: the Anglican Church, and gave himself the title of Supreme Head. So, finally, he could divorce Catherine and marry Anne. This produced a lot of religious tension all over Europe and many conflicts. Once again, he had a daughter named Elizabeth. At this moment, his decline began due to the impossibility of having a male heir. Anne Boleyn was accused of adultery, so she... Continue reading "Henry VIII's Reign: England's Religious Shift" »

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The Impact of the Penal Laws

Another negative aspect was the imposition of the so-called Penal Laws, which were a series of laws imposed in an attempt to force Irish Catholics to accept the reformed denomination as defined by the Anglican Church. Many Catholics were persecuted. Another aspect imposed had to do with the distribution of the land: Puritans could give the whole land to their descendants. However, Catholics had to divide it, so the value of the land diminished, and this worsened over generations. Oliver Cromwell imposed these laws because during the First Civil War the King counted on the help of Catholics, so it was like revenge.

1653 – 1658: The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell

During this period, Oliver Cromwell took full control... Continue reading "The Restoration and Reign of Charles II: A Transformative Era" »

One of the major issues was religion, which became a central point of conflict. The problem stemmed from the king, who was an Anglican but became a Catholic almost at the point of death. This created a problem from the very beginning. The Houses of Parliament were divided into two dominant groups: the Whig group and the Tory group. The Whigs were called 'Roundheads' and the Tories were called 'Cavaliers' during the Civil War. The fact that the king was surrounded by Catholics made things very difficult. The Tories were ready to support the king; the Whigs were less ready to support the king because they had supported Parliament during the Civil War.

Accession of James II (1685)

Charles II died without a legitimate heir, so his successor had to... Continue reading "The Glorious Revolution of 1688" »

1756 – 1763: Seven Years' War

It was a global war with varied effects. East American colonies were restricted from westward expansion, while French colonies had the opportunity to expand west. This disparity was a significant cause of the war.

The French were defeated, and their territories were taken by England.

The victory was costly. To recover, England imposed taxation, notably the Stamp Act, which taxed legal documents in the colonies. The colonies protested, arguing against taxation without representation in Parliament. Violent reactions, such as in Boston, ensued. England maintained taxes on certain products, like tea.

In 1773, The Boston Tea Party occurred. Citizens of Boston, disguised as Mohawks, threw tea cargo into the sea.

England... Continue reading "Seven Years' War, American Revolution & Industrial Revolution" »

The Railway Revolution in Britain

During this period, the development of the railway was profoundly important. It contributed to maintaining peace and diminishing unemployment rates, as railways employed individuals who were at an age when finding work was typically difficult; these workers were known as “navvies”. By 1851, there were already 10,000 km of open tracks operating, making Britain the first nation in the world to possess such an extensive railway network. However, the construction of these tracks was very expensive and required significant land acquisition.

Societal Transformations Driven by Railways

This extensive construction provoked significant changes in people’s lives:

• Changes in Daily Life: The Phenomenon of Commuting
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The Late Victorian Era: Society and Education (Second Half of the 19th Century)

During the second half of the 19th century, British society was deeply divided and imbalanced. On one hand, there was the Great Famine in Ireland, while on the other, powerful elites held sway. For example, in the field of education, only 8% of all children in the United Kingdom received secondary education. Yet, this was also the golden age of public schools such as Rugby, Eton, Winchester, and others. These elitist schools were entirely private and served as the primary educational institutions for the elite. These public schools played a very important role, and this continues to be the case today. With the exception of John Major, all British prime ministers... Continue reading "Victorian Britain: Society, Education, and Imperial Expansion" »