Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The End of World War II

Allied Victory

1. In 1943, British forces gained control of North Africa and Italy, forcing Mussolini to surrender.
2. In June 1944, Allied forces landed on Normandy, France, in the event known as D-Day.
3. In May 1945, Germany surrendered. In August 1945, the United States used the atomic bomb on Japan. World War II was over.

Results of the War

1. The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the most powerful countries in the world.
2. In 1945, some 50 nations formed the United Nations, an international peacekeeping organization.

The Cold War Era

Defining the Cold War

The Cold War was a period of tense rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union.

Causes and Effects

• Cause: Rivalry developed between the United States and the Soviet

New Technology & Tactics

Tank corps & RFC growing in importance; awareness of importance of these new weapons.

Significant improvements to tank technology & tactics in particular. Tanks employed en masse and with infantry filing behind to ‘mop up’.

Improvement of artillery; ‘Creeping Barrage’ made more effective by better communications & ‘106 fuse’ shells designed to explode horizontally.

Battle of Arras & Failure of Nivelle

Designed as a diversion to Nivelle’s upcoming offensive.

Element of surprise achieved with only short artillery bombardment preceding the attack. Artillery also far more effective.

Infantry approached German trenches through tunnels to minimize casualties.

Efficacy of ‘Combined Arms Tactics’... Continue reading "World War I Battles: New Technology and Tactics" »

1. Indigenous Societies & Colonial Advantages

What was the most important advantage that Indigenous groups in Mexico or Peru had compared to other Indigenous groups?

D. The ability to create a surplus of food.

2. Spanish Colonial Priorities

Which answer best describes Spanish colonies?

D. Converting Indigenous peoples to Christianity was a high priority.

3. Jamestown Colony's Prosperity

The Jamestown, Virginia, colony eventually prospered because:

B. Tobacco became a profitable crop to export.

4. Puritan Migration to North America

What was the most important reason the Puritans left England?

To start a society based on Protestant ideals.

5. Quaker Uniqueness in 17th Century North America

The Quakers were unique among the religious groups that settled

The Decline of the Hispanic Monarchy

Felipe III had the largest empire in the 17th century. He disliked ruling the country, so he delegated his authority to a valido, which was a kind of prime minister that depended on the king's favor. He faced several problems, but he was able to maintain its extension due to his pacifist policies:

• He signed a peace with England with the Treaty of London (1604).
• The Twelve Years' Truce with the Netherlands from 1609 to 1621 maintained peace, although it was an indirect way of recognizing the Northern Provinces' independence as the truce was not able to be renewed and then at the Thirty Years' War it was confirmed in the Treaty of Westphalia.
• Peace with France was signed in 1598.

During his reign, the Moriscos... Continue reading "The Decline of the Hispanic Monarchy in the 17th Century" »

German Unification: A Historical Overview

Until the 19th century, Germany was a conglomeration of more than 300 German-speaking political entities. The railway and the Zollverein, a customs union founded in 1834, reduced the barriers among the German states and helped to create a sense of economic unification that set the groundwork for the political unification of Germany.

Bismarck's Role in Unification

The process was led by Otto von Bismarck, chancellor of Prussia. His foreign policy was based on the Realpolitik.

The Prussian Military's Influence

The Prussian military played a key role in the German unification. It was commanded by Field Marshal Helmut von Moltke, who organized a formidable army due to its size, organization (creation of a General... Continue reading "German Unification: From Fragmentation to Empire" »

Historical Terminology: Russian Revolution Era

Key Definitions

• Soviet: Workers' and soldiers' assembly.
• USSR: The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
• Duma: Russian parliament.
• Bolshevik: Radical socialists.
• Menshevik: Moderate socialists.
• Red Army: The Bolshevik Army.
• Tsar: Russian Emperor.

The Road to World War II

The period leading up to the war saw several aggressive actions by Germany and its allies:

• Hitler broke the Treaty of Versailles and marched his soldiers into the Rhineland (1936).
• Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan and Italy, directed against the Soviet Union.
• Hitler provided military aid to the Nationalist rebels during the Spanish Civil War.
• Germany annexed Austria (the Anschluss), as Hitler believed the nations belonged together.

Participants

Allies: France, UK, US, and the Soviet Union (from 1941)

Axis Powers: Germany, Italy, and Japan

Causes

• Germany's quest for revenge after the Treaty of Versailles
• Expansion of totalitarian ideologies (Fascism, Nazism)
• Rise in militarism and nationalism, leading to territorial claims
• Economic depression during the 1930s

Steps to the War

• Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1932
• Annexation of Ethiopia (1935) and Albania (1939) by Italy
• Annexation of Austria (1938) and Czechoslovakia (1939) by Germany
• German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact (1939)

Spark of the Conflict

German invasion of Poland using the Blitzkrieg method (September 1, 1939)

Stages

1st Stage

Victory of the Axis Powers, invasion of Poland (quick attack using planes and tanks)

Denmark, the Baltic... Continue reading "World War II: Causes, Stages, and Aftermath" »

The Parliamentary Monarchy in England

The King's power in England had been limited by the Parliament since the Middle Ages. The English Parliament was bicameral, made up of two houses:

• The House of Lords: Composed of the clergy and nobles.
• The House of Commons: Representing the cities and the bourgeoisie.

The 17th Century English Revolutions

The first Stuart kings attempted to impose an absolute monarchy in England. This ambition led to significant conflict.

The English Civil War and the Republic

Charles I imprisoned and executed his Parliament opponents, which led directly to a civil war. Charles I and his supporters were defeated, and the king was executed in 1649. A Republic, led by Oliver Cromwell, was subsequently proclaimed.

Restoration and the

The Weimar Republic's Fragility

Early Challenges and Opposition

The provisional government repressed the Spartacist Revolt in 1919, led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, which aimed to impose a communist regime. A constituent assembly then passed a constitution in the city of Weimar, establishing Germany as a democratic republic. This new democracy faced significant opposition from extremist groups:

• The extreme left believed the regime was too moderate.
• The extreme right believed the new regime had betrayed Germany by accepting the Treaty of Versailles.

Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party

Party Formation and Early Actions

Adolf Hitler joined the German Workers' Party (DAP), which later became the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP).... Continue reading "The Genesis of Nazism: From Weimar's Weakness to Hitler's Chancellorship" »