Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Radical-CEDA Biennium: The Revolution of 1934

The dissolution of parliament in September 1933 ended the alliance between the Radical Party and the Socialists under Azaña. The right wing reorganized during the biennium, with two main trends. First, the opposition to the Republic, including Monarchists, Traditionalists, and Fascists (JONS, Falange Española), who merged in 1934. Second, the Republican right, composed of CEDA and Acción Popular. The political campaign was very tense, revealing a deep division in society. The Socialists considered CEDA and its leader, Gil Robles, to be fascist and threatened a revolution if the right won the elections. The right, in turn, regarded the Socialists as revolutionary, aiming to revise the Constitution... Continue reading "Spain's Tumultuous 1930s: Radicalization, Elections, and the Popular Front" »

This document assesses the industrial development of Spain and Catalonia in relation to the more industrialized countries of Europe. Spain took a while to develop its industry. As we can see in the graphic, other countries were already highly industrialized by the year 1870, whereas Spain and Catalonia, seven years later, in 1877, were not yet equal to other countries. Most of its economic sector continued to be based on the primary sector, and there was very little population engaged in the secondary and tertiary sectors. We can also observe that Catalonia became industrialized before the rest of Spain.

Obstacles to Industrialization in Spain

Spaniards encountered the problem of a lack of money. They had only the money necessary to live, and... Continue reading "Spain's Industrialization: Challenges and Economic Impact" »

As soon as there was resistance from the Republic, it had a social base on which it was sustained. The power of the Union and Progress, led by General Serrano, attempted to stabilize a conservative republic. However, the social base had opted for the Alfonsina solution: the return of a new model of liberalism with an endemic precedent. This included the partisan and exclusionary nature of moderate military interventionism in politics and the proliferation of civil strife. There were two objectives: to develop a constitution that structured a bipartisan political system and to pacify the country by ending the war in Cuba and the Carlist conflict.

The first policy measure was the convening of elections for a Constituent Assembly, as the constitution... Continue reading "The Restoration of the Monarchy in Spain: 1876-1898" »

Church Patronage of the Arts

Because they wanted to express their love of God by spending money to build and decorate churches. Others hoped that offerings of beautiful works of art would lead God to forgive their sins. Some Popes sponsored the arts because they hoped to inspire loyalty to the Church.

Challenges to Papal Power

Because they also disliked the power of the Pope and they wanted to collect their own taxes and make their own laws. They wanted the same power as the leaders of Italy's city-states.

Navigation Tools for Exploration

Because with the compass they could find out which direction they were traveling and they measured their latitude with an astrolabe.

Seeking New Trade Routes to Asia

Because they thought they would discover a new... Continue reading "Reasons, Rulers, and Renaissance Figures" »

Tsarist Russia and the Path to Revolution

In Tsarist Russia, the Tsar held absolute power. The Duma, a parliament, existed but could be dissolved at the Tsar's will.

1905: Russo-Japanese War and Bloody Sunday

The Russian army suffered defeat against Japanese troops. On January 9th, a peaceful demonstration at the Tsar's Winter Palace was violently suppressed, resulting in Bloody Sunday. Workers organized into soviets (popular assemblies). The October Manifesto was signed but later violated by the Tsar.

World War I and the Fall of the Tsar

Russia entered World War I in 1914 unprepared, leading to numerous defeats. In 1917, widespread demonstrations and a general strike forced the Tsar to abdicate, leading to a provisional government.

The Bolshevik

Fascist Ideology

Fascism advocated for a totalitarian state that controlled all aspects of life. The state had complete oversight, eliminating individual freedom, equality, and rights, and rejecting the separation of powers. It supported a one-party dictatorship based on the principle of leadership. Fascism promoted a society founded on hierarchy, order, obedience, and authority. It was radically anti-communist and anti-capitalist, aiming for a national socialism that would eliminate class divisions. Aggressive nationalism, expansionism, and militarism were central tenets. Fascists were often racist, asserting the inferiority of people of color and the superiority of the Aryan race, which they believed had the right to subjugate other races.... Continue reading "Understanding Fascism and the Weimar Republic" »

The Spanish War of Independence

The disorganized nature of the initial resistance seemed to confirm forecasts that Napoleon's invasion would be quick and easy. However, the resilience of cities such as Girona, Zaragoza, and Tarragona, subjected to sieges by French troops, pinned down the French army and prevented progress towards the Levant.

Moreover, the defeat of the invaders in Bailén forced José I to leave Madrid, and much of the imperial army retreated north of the Ebro. Napoleon went to Spain in November to lead the counteroffensive. In January 1809, Joseph I returned to Madrid, and by 1809, French rule spread throughout Spain.

Guerrilla Warfare and Spanish Resistance

Resistance to the invasion was carried out by the guerrillas, small local... Continue reading "The Spanish War of Independence: Resistance and Ideologies" »

Political Parties in the Second Spanish Republic

Following the proclamation of the Republic, a provisional government was formed. It represented all the forces that signed the Pact of San Sebastián:

• Liberal Republican Right: Alcalá Zamora (President), Miguel Maura (Interior)
• Radical Republican Party: Lerroux (State), Martínez Barrio (Communications)
• Republican Action: Azaña (War)
• Radical Socialist Republican Party: Marcelino Domingo (Education), Álvaro Albornoz (Development), Nicolau D'Oliver (Economy), Casares Quiroga (Navy)
• PSOE: Indalecio Prieto (Finance), Fernando de los Rios (Justice), Largo Caballero (Labor)

It was not a revolutionary government. The members were mostly middle-class men aware of the need to modernize the country, but supporters... Continue reading "Spanish Second Republic: Parties & Early Challenges" »

Porguerra Ecnomus: The Situation: There were heavy losses and spending; the only exception was the U.S., which became the great industrial power. They had to resort to inflation, state intervention, and other measures that contradicted the principles of economic liberalism. The post-war unrest in Europe attempted to recover the normal pre-war economy.

Crisis of 1929: The U.S. was the best reflection of confidence in the future, experiencing a significant economic expansion. The population contracted credits and speculated on the New York Stock Exchange, aiming for profits. October 24, 1929, was Black Thursday on Wall Street. That year, several warnings generated suspicion among speculators, leading to a massive sell-off as everyone wanted to... Continue reading "Understanding Economic Crises and Their Impact on Society" »

Pre-War Conflicts Leading to World War I

With the two sides defined, Europe was under great strain, which is why this period is known as the Armed Peace (a time when, despite the absence of declared wars, all countries were preparing for one).

Key Conflicts Paving the Way for War

• Colonial Encounters

  These were largely driven by Germany. Kaiser Wilhelm II favored a more aggressive policy. He dismissed Bismarck and embarked on a series of attempts to gain ground in the colonies.

  In 1905, the First Moroccan Crisis took place. Wilhelm II supported the Sultan of Morocco to resist France's attempts to create a protectorate. War was narrowly avoided. To resolve the conflict, the Conference of Algeciras was held in 1906, where Spanish and French protectorates