Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Axis Advantages at the Start of WWII in Europe and Asia

At the beginning of World War II, the Axis powers, primarily Germany and Japan, held significant advantages in Europe and Asia. These advantages stemmed from a combination of military preparedness, technological advancements, and strategic positioning.

Germany's Military Advantage

Germany's advantage lay in its significantly larger armed forces, equipped with modern weapons and employing modern tactics. Following World War I, European countries, including Britain and the United States, demobilized much of their armed forces throughout the 1920s. However, after Hitler's rise to power in 1933, and in direct violation of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany began rebuilding its military might.... Continue reading "Axis Advantages and Allied Victory in World War II" »

War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714)

The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) was fought among several European powers, principally the Holy Roman Empire, Great Britain, the Dutch Republic, Portugal, and the Duchy of Savoy, against the Kingdoms of France and Spain and the Electorate of Bavaria, over a possible unification of the Kingdoms of Spain and France under a single Bourbon monarch. Such an unification would have drastically changed the European balance of power.

Recognition of Bourbon Philip V as King of Spain

It resulted in the recognition of the Bourbon Philip V as King of Spain while requiring him both to renounce any claim to the French throne and to cede much of the European Spanish Crown's possessions.

Background

In 1700,... Continue reading "War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714): Causes, Consequences, and Impact" »

Causes and Consequences of World War I (WW1)

Long-Term Causes of WW1

• Rivalry between France and Germany
• Colonial rivalry
• Naval rivalry
• Berlin Conference (A meeting held to divide Africa)

Short-Term Causes

• Nationalist movements (Protest against the empires)
• Militarism (Arms race and preparation of soldiers)

Trigger Event

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.

Consequences of WW1

Demographic Consequences

• Approximately 9 million deaths.
• Decrease in birth rates.
• The spread of the Spanish Flu pandemic.

Political Consequences

• Rise of extreme ideologies (Right and Left).
• Establishment of parliamentary democracies.
• Disappearance of major empires.
• Creation of new states (e.g., Lithuania, Estonia, Moldova).
• Establishment of the League of Nations.
• Signing of the Treaty

How Civil War Nationalism Affected Diverse Groups

The Civil War spurred a significant impulse of nationalism in the United States, which affected various groups differently. Although the war's purpose shifted substantially from its beginning to its end, evidence shows that different populations experienced varied outcomes. The unique context of the Civil War aligned African Americans with the preservation and expansion of the United States, while Native Americans and Chinese Immigrants were largely defined as outsiders.

African Americans and Union Victory

Initially, the Union's primary motivation for fighting was to preserve the nation. When this motivation evolved to include ending slavery, it carried profound implications for African Americans.... Continue reading "Civil War Nationalism: Impact on African Americans, Native Americans, and Chinese Immigrants" »

The Pivotal 1960 Presidential Election

The election of 1960 was one of the closest elections in American history.

The Candidates and Campaign Dynamics

• Republican Insider: Richard Nixon, who served as Vice President for eight years under Dwight Eisenhower.
• Democratic Newcomer: John F. Kennedy (JFK), a senator from Massachusetts. At age 43, he stood to become the youngest person ever elected President.

Major Campaign Issues

Age was not the only factor. Kennedy was also Roman Catholic, and no Catholic had ever been elected President before. To mollify these concerns, Kennedy addressed a group of Protestant ministers, pledging a solid commitment to the separation of church and state.

Kennedy also stressed his character, assisted by those in the press... Continue reading "John F. Kennedy's Presidency: 1960 Election and the Cuban Missile Crisis" »

1. The Left Republicans and Socialist Government: Reforms October 1931 – November 1933 Azaña was named head of the government by socialists and Republicans and then started a series of reforms. The most important concerned the modernization of the army and the redistribution of land ownership in order to solve the unemployment problem originated by the latifundios. Public disorder was constant during this period and violence showed in episodes like the ones in Casa Viejas where an uprising against landowners turned into a massacre and Castiblanco where a series of protest marches turned into the lynching of a group of Civil Guards. On August 1932, General Sanjurjo failed a military coup in Seville trying to seize power.
2. Radicals and CEDA Government:

The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714)

The War of the Spanish Succession was fought between a coalition led by the Holy Roman Empire, Great Britain, the Dutch Republic, Portugal, and the Duchy of Savoy, against the Kingdoms of France and Spain and the Electorate of Bavaria.

The conflict arose after the last Spanish Habsburg King, Charles II of Spain, died without issue, leading to a dispute over the succession between the Bourbon candidate, Philip V, and the Austrian Habsburg Archduke Charles.

The war was concluded by the treaties of Utrecht (1713) and Rastatt (1714). As a result, Bourbon Philip V was recognized as King of Spain, but he was forced to renounce any claim to the French throne and to cede much of the European Spanish Crown'... Continue reading "The Bourbon Dynasty and 18th Century Spanish Reforms" »

Spain Under Franco: Repression, Recovery, and Change

The Francoist dictatorship can be broadly divided into two distinct periods.

Initial Isolation and Repression (1939-1950s)

From 1939 until the 1950s, Spain experienced significant isolation from most Western countries due to its dictatorial regime. This era was marked by intense repression, with many political prisoners still incarcerated.

Shifting Alliances and Economic Opening (1950s-1970s)

In the 1950s, the United States sought closer ties with Spain, recognizing its anti-communist stance and strategic position for controlling the Mediterranean Sea.

Economic Growth and Social Transformation

By the 1960s, Spain began to emerge as a tourist attraction, though it wasn't until the 1970s that tourism... Continue reading "Spain Under Franco: Repression, Recovery, and Change (1939-1975)" »

Early Life and Path to the Presidency

On November 22, 1963, when President John F. Kennedy was assassinated, Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn in as the 36th President of the United States. He had a vision to build "A Great Society" for the American people. Born on August 27, 1908, in central Texas, not far from Johnson City, which his family had helped settle, Johnson felt the pinch of rural poverty growing up. He worked his way through Southwest Texas State Teachers College, gaining firsthand experience of the challenges faced by many Americans.

Legislative Achievements: Civil Rights and Tax Cuts

Upon assuming the presidency, Johnson prioritized enacting the measures President Kennedy had been urging at the time of his death: a new... Continue reading "Lyndon B. Johnson's Presidency and the Great Society" »