Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Humanism was a cultural movement that first began in the 14 century. It developed fully in the 15 and 16 centuries in the rich city-states of the northern parta of the italian peninsula.

humanists developed an anthropocentric wold view as an alternative to the God-centred world view of medieval christians. Humans and their intelligence became the main concerns of the humanists.

The Organization of the State

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was created in 1922 as a federation of republics. The first constitution of the USSR was formulated in 1924 and established a new political system. The republics had autonomy in domestic policy and could retain their languages and customs. The highest legislative body was the Supreme Soviet, elected by the Soviets of the republics. This institution named the Presidium, whose president was the Head of State, and the Council of People's Commissars, which was similar to a Council of Ministers.

A Totalitarian Dictatorship

In 1929, Stalin took control of the government and established a personal dictatorship based on the cult of personality:

• Propaganda: Used to depict Stalin as the

The Master of Renaissance Architecture

Andrea Palladio is considered one of the most influential architects of all time, especially in the realm of Renaissance architecture. He incorporated Vitruvian ideologies in his work and was heavily influenced by Greek and Roman architecture. His influence spread through his unique buildings and published writings. By combining traditional architectural styles with his own innovations, he created a distinct style that is conveyed through both his writings and buildings and is still referenced in modern architecture.

The Four Books of Architecture

Palladio's book, I quattro libri dell'architettura (The Four Books of Architecture), publicized his system of building to architects across Europe. He emphasized...

The Spanish Conquest of the Aztec Empire

Early Encounters and Exploration

In 1518, a disturbing report reached the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán: white-faced men were approaching from the sea. King Moctezuma, filled with dismay, wondered if these strangers could be the returning god Quetzalcóatl.

These men were part of an expedition led by Juan de Grijalva, sent by Diego Velásquez, the governor of Cuba, to explore the coasts discovered by Francisco Hernández de Córdoba. Grijalva's expedition traded gold with the Aztecs, confirming the existence of a wealthy kingdom.

Hernán Cortés and the March to Tenochtitlán

Velásquez, eager to conquer this new land, chose Hernán Cortés to lead a third expedition. Cortés, a skilled soldier and strategist,...

             3. THE THIRTY YEARS WAR

Causes:  

1. This war was caused because of the cinflict between Catholics and protestants in the Holy Roman Empire
2. Gradually it developed into a more general conflict for Europe political dominance

The main problems of the war and the different participants:

1. Protestants uprising in Bohemia: Some protestants nobles expelled the Cathilics and appointed a protestant kink in Bohemia. The emperor who was king of Bohemia too fought against them.
2. Two sides were formed: 1. The emperor had the support of the German Catholics and the king os Spain and Portugal 2. The protestants allied with German but they were defeated
3. Swedish participation: 1. After the Surrunder of Breda the German Catholic took the protestants

SECTION 1

13TH CENTURY BC: Jews escaped from captivity in Egypt. Settled in Canaan.

                                    Jews formed the kingdom of Judea.

                                    People called Peleshet populated Philistia.

70AD: Jews were forced to disperse throughout the Roman Empire

           The emperor Adrian re-named the area Palestine after expelled the Romans

FOLLOWUING CENTURIES: Few Jews and Christians lived among Muslim Majorities

SECTION 2

7TH CENTURY: Muslim-Palestine connexion after the area was invaded by a Caliph

1516: Palestine under the control of the Ottoman Turks

19TH CENTURY: The diaspora Jews and the first settlers began arriving in

3. TOTALITARIAN REGIMES: FASCISM AND NAZISM
The interwar period saw the rise of totalitarian regimes in several states, fueled by economic, ideological, and political crises.

Characteristics of Totalitarianism

Totalitarian regimes share several key characteristics:

• Authoritarian Regime:
  • Charismatic leader with unlimited power, often seen as infallible. Examples include Adolf Hitler (Führer) and Benito Mussolini (Il Duce).
  • Lack of freedom or political plurality, with a single political party dominating.
  • Opposition suppressed through repression and violence, often by paramilitary forces or political police.
• Economic and Social Control:
  • The state controls the economy, often with anti-capitalist and anti-communist policies.
  • Society is manipulated through

Proportional Representation vs. Plurality

Proportional representation (PR) systems aim to allocate seats in a legislature based on the proportion of votes received by each party. In contrast, plurality systems award seats to the candidate or party with the most votes in each district, regardless of the margin of victory.

PR systems tend to produce more representative legislatures, as they allow smaller parties to gain representation. Plurality systems, on the other hand, often result in one party winning a majority of seats even if they do not receive a majority of the votes.

The American Labor and Liberal Parties

The American Labor and Liberal Parties were minor political parties that emerged in the early 20th century. These parties represented...

Support for Primo de Rivera's Government

Who supported Primo de Rivera's government?

Support came from King Alfonso XIII, southern landlords, the army, and the wealthy, moderate capitalists from Catalonia. His dictatorship also sought the backing of the moderate socialist union, the UGT (Unión General de Trabajadores).

The First Republican Government and Key Reforms

The first Republican government was a coalition between center-progressive parties and the PSOE (a moderate socialist party). The main reforms they introduced were:

• Military Reform: The army was too large, inefficient, and outdated for the country to afford. Manuel Azaña decided to reduce its size by offering generous retirement pensions.
• Educational Reform: The Church had traditionally