Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Ancient Greece: Core Characteristics

Political Structure

The Greek world was never politically unified. City-states (c/s) maintained their own governments and fiercely defended their independence, leading to endless rivalry and frequent wars.

Forms of Government

• Monarchy: Government where a king exercises central power.
• Aristocracy: Government ruled by noble leaders who were elected. Initially, the power of the king shifted to the noble class, who defended the king but eventually won power themselves.
• Oligarchy: Government ruled by a small, powerful elite. This group challenged landowning nobles for power and came to dominate the city-states.

Economy, Religion, and Society

• Economy: Based primarily on settlers and traders.
• Religion: Polytheistic, centered

Key Terms of the French Revolution Era

The Enlightenment and Society

The Enlightenment: An eighteenth-century intellectual movement, led by the philosophes, that stressed the application of reason and the scientific method to question the accepted order of society, politics, and religion.

Secular: Not religious.

Scientific Method: A method of seeking knowledge using experiments and observations to develop generalizations.

Philosophes: Intellectuals of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment who believed in applying a spirit of rational criticism to all things, including religion and politics.

Separation of Powers: A doctrine enunciated by Montesquieu in the eighteenth century that separate executive, legislative, and judicial powers serve to limit and... Continue reading "Key Terms of the French Revolution Era: 18th Century" »

1.Fighting World War II

In the mid-1930s, it became clear that peace wouldn’t last For long. Japan invaded China, and in Europe, the raising of Nazi Germany under Adolph Hitler’s run posed a growing threat. Roosevelt had no choice other than Following the policy of “appeasement”, in hopes that agreeing to Hitler’s Demands would prevent war.When war broke out in Europe in 1939, Roosevelt reconsidered Entering the conflict, but the American citizens still opposed. In 1940, Congress agreed to allow the sale of arms to Britain. Opponents of involvement In Europe created the America First Committee, that included well-known figures Like Henry Ford and Charles A. Lindbergh. In 1940, Roosevelt won the elections and was the first President... Continue reading "Engines" »

The Early Republic and Federal Government

George Washington and the First Administration

• George Washington: As the first president, he was in charge of building a functioning government; he created the Departments of State, Treasury, and War.
• Supreme Court: Established with one Chief Justice and five Associate Justices.
• Policies: Focused on administering western territories.

Political Factions and National Union

• Federalists: Led by John Adams and Alexander Hamilton, they represented trade and manufacturing interests in the North.
• Republicans: Led by Thomas Jefferson, they represented agricultural interests in the South.
• National Union: The Constitution sought a balance between liberty and order.

International Conflict and the Monroe Doctrine

• War with

The Russian Revolution and Its Aftermath

On its surface, Animal Farm seems to be a simple tale about talking animals on a farm—a children's story, some might think. But this surface is the allegory, or story with a hidden political meaning, of the Russian Revolution of 1917, the civil war that followed (1918–20), and the later rise of Stalin's dictatorship in the Soviet Union.

Parallels Between Napoleon and Josef Stalin

The novel draws clear parallels between Josef Stalin and the pig Napoleon. To serve his own ends, Napoleon distorts Old Major's idealized dream of equality and brotherhood for all animals as he rules the farm. In the same way, Stalin distorted the ideals of Marxist communism to feed his own desire for power and control in the... Continue reading "Animal Farm Allegory: Russian Revolution and Stalinism" »

The Organization of the State

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was created in 1922 as a federation of republics. The first constitution of the USSR was formulated in 1924 and established a new political system. The republics had autonomy in domestic policy and could retain their languages and customs. The highest legislative body was the Supreme Soviet, elected by the Soviets of the republics. This institution named the Presidium, whose president was the Head of State, and the Council of People's Commissars, which was similar to a Council of Ministers.

A Totalitarian Dictatorship

In 1929, Stalin took control of the government and established a personal dictatorship based on the cult of personality:

• Propaganda: Used to depict Stalin as the

Historical Sociology or Comparative History

Historical sociologists are interested in how modernization takes place. It's not the level of modernization that matters, but how it is achieved. They focus on class structure because they believe that the result of modernization will depend on the class structure of the country and the relations between different social groups. Groups will be benefited in different ways, so they analyze which social groups were more affected and benefited by democracy.

Barrington Moore and the Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy

Barrington Moore was the founder of this school and wrote the influential book Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World in 1966.... Continue reading "Modernization & Social Class: A Comparative Historical Analysis" »

Impact of Enlightenment and American Revolution

The **Declaration of Independence of the USA** and its **Constitution (1787)** championed the inalienable rights of citizens and the separation of powers. Enlightenment principles and the **American Revolution** provided the bourgeoisie with new ideas to confront absolutism and the stratified social system.

Social and Economic Crisis

The crisis had two main facets:

• Economic Crisis: Resulting from a series of poor harvests since **1760**. The rise in food prices generated a spirit of rebellion among the people.
• Financial Crisis: Caused by the monarchy's severe lack of money.

1789: Rebellion Erupts

The **Estates-General** met in **Versailles** in **May 1789**. This meeting was chaired by the King and comprised... Continue reading "Transforming Europe: The French Revolution's Legacy" »

The Enlightenment: Ideas and Impact

The Enlightenment was based on Sapere Aude (Latin for "Dare to Know"), a call for individuals to use their own reason and understanding.

Key Enlightenment Thinkers

• Montesquieu
• Voltaire
• Rousseau
• John Locke (in England)

Core Enlightenment Ideas

• National Sovereignty: Power resides with the people.
• Division of Powers:
  • Legislative: Makes laws.
  • Executive: Governs and enforces laws.
  • Judicial: Interprets laws and administers justice.
• Equality of Citizens: All men are born free and equal.

Enlightened Despotism in Europe

Some monarchs in Europe adopted new Enlightenment ideas into their governments. However, they retained absolute power, caring for the welfare of their people but without their direct participation. Their motto was:... Continue reading "Enlightenment to Revolution: Shaping Modern Europe" »

• Ten Percent Plan: Lincoln's plan that allowed a Southern state to form its own government if ten percent of voters swore an oath of loyalty to the US.
• Wade-Davis Bill: An 1864 plan for Reconstruction that denied the right to vote or hold office for anyone who had fought for the Confederacy.
• Black Codes: Laws denying most legal rights to newly freed slaves.
• Freedmen's Bureau: Provided clothing, shelter, education, food, and medicine to former slaves.
• Civil Rights Act of 1866: Law that authorized federal action against segregation in public.
• Fourteenth Amendment: Guarantees equal protection of the law and rights of citizenship to all people born in the USA.
• Reconstruction Act of 1867: Act passed that set up 5 temporary military districts run by Union