Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Causes of European Discoveries

The Europeans needed to find new commercial routes to the East because, in 1453, the Turks captured Constantinople. This disrupted trade routes between Europe and the Far East.

Technical Advances

New maps, portulans, were designed especially for navigation. They drew the lines of the maritime coast and the obstacles. These indicated the shortest distance between ports using straight lines.

Portuguese Shipments

Portuguese expeditions inched forward. First, they incorporated the Madeira and Azores islands into their territories. Then, they headed south and skirted the coast of Africa. They doubled Cape Bojador and reached the Gulf of Guinea.

In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope.

Vasco da Gama arrived...

Spain's Political Turmoil: From Bourbon Succession to Napoleonic Invasion

The abrogation of the Salic Law, which traditionally prevented women from inheriting the Spanish throne, sparked significant political unrest. This measure was vehemently opposed by Don Carlos, brother of King Ferdinand VII and until then the designated successor, who garnered the support of absolutist factions. Consequently, Maria Cristina, Ferdinand VII's wife, who assumed the regency during the King's final months, was compelled to seek the backing of moderate liberals. This alliance marked a crucial rapprochement between the liberal movement and the monarchy, setting the stage for future conflicts.

The Reign of Charles IV and the French Revolution's Shadow

The political...

Regime in Opposition to Deliver It: The Carlist Wars and the Foral Question

The First Carlist War (1833-1839)

The government acceded very strongly to deliver it. Maria Cristina saw an oppositional, anti-liberal traditionalist group, the Carlists, gathered around the *Infante* Don Carlos, Count of Molina (brother of Fernando VII). The Carlists accepted that bringing them went against the way of thinking of the Spanish people, and additionally, they identified the new industries (machinery) with low-quality work. Part of the clergy and the current state supported the *medio* (which had disappeared in the 10th century and the first fruits), as well as the lower nobility, with the objective (among others) of obtaining charges at birth. Their motto...

German Pavilion by Mies van der Rohe

The German Pavilion, designed by Mies van der Rohe, is a seminal work of mid-century architecture, completed in 1929.

Historical Context (1929)

In 1929, Spain was under the reign of Alfonso XIII, with Primo de Rivera holding power. Meanwhile, Germany was the Weimar Republic. The German population was growing, with industry being the main occupation.

Mies van der Rohe's Career

Mies van der Rohe was a leading representative of rationalist architecture. Of German origin, his career can be divided into two parts. His initial training and practice were in Berlin until just after World War I, a period when Germany was devastated. He was part of a group tasked with rebuilding the country. Thereafter, his career ascended....

Azana Speech Text is a speech with political content by Manuel Azaña, a historical political figure during the War, Prime Minister, and President of the Republic, delivered before the Spanish Constituent Assembly of 1931, arising from the June 1931 elections. The text is from the fall of 1931 and was addressed to the deputies of the Cortes.
The intention is to defend a secular state, notably articles 26 and 27 of the Constitution, and to argue that regime change must address the deep problems of the country, including the oligarchic rule of the people, concentrated ownership, and the role of the Church. The author first raises in his speech that we are in a revolution that began with the fall of the biggest responsibility for the misfortunes...

The Russian Revolution

During the era of the Tsars, a select few enjoyed wealth and favorable living conditions, while peasants endured meager wages. Ultimately, the people prevailed, initiating a revolution that led to the Bolsheviks, led by URS Lenin, establishing the Social Democratic Party.

Stalin's Era

The Bolsheviks formed the Red Army. Internal conflicts within the Bolshevik party led to its renaming as the Communist Party. The Soviet Union consolidated power, becoming a single-party state where other parties were excluded. Following the USSR's creation, a struggle for totalitarian power ensued.

Lenin's Death and Power Struggles

Lenin died during a period of debate on consolidating the revolution, marked by internal clashes.

Stalinism and

Understanding Imperialism (1875-1914)

Imperialism: A historical phenomenon that developed further between 1875 and 1914. It involved a set of European countries, Japan, and the U.S. colonizing other countries in Africa, Asia, and America.

What is Protectionism?

Protectionism: Is the increase in tariffs, making products from other countries more expensive.

Causes of Imperialism

• Economic: The mother country sold goods in the colony, invested capital, exploited labor, and obtained cheaper raw materials.
• Political: To be a major power, a country needed colonies.
• Strategic: Seizing areas near coastal regions was important.
• Demographic: Colonies served as an outlet for excess population.
• Cultural: The idea of civilizing other areas.

The Era of Armed Peace

The Formation of the Popular Front Government

On February 18, 1936, Niceto Alcalá Zamora ordered the formation of a new government under Manuel Azaña. This government would implement the Popular Front's program, based on four key pillars:

• Continuation of agrarian reform
• Strengthening of educational policy
• Amnesty for political prisoners
• Restoration of the Generalitat of Catalonia and promotion of Basque and Galician autonomy statutes

On April 7, Alcalá Zamora was ousted as President of the Republic and replaced by Manuel Azaña. Santiago Casares Quiroga became President of the Government.

Public Disorder and Political Violence

Public disorder manifested in three main ways:

• Violence in the countryside, with strikes and land occupations.
• Attacks on

The Illustration: The Powers of the State

Division of Powers - First President of the First Government Junta

Mateo de Toro Zambrano, 1810. The First Government Junta in 1823. Bernardo O'Higgins renounced free trade with the allied nations of Spain. This is related to the *Good Air* board. New military units were created, the *Real Audiencia* was abolished, and a National Congress was convened.

First National Congress (July 4, 1811)

The First National Congress was considered only temporary because many of its members did not want the independence of Chile. Freedom of the womb was created by José Miguel Carrera.

José Miguel Carrera's Government

Carrera created *The Aurora of Chile*, directed by Fray Camilo Henríquez. The 1812 Constitutional Regulations...

The Crisis of 1917 in Spain: A Turning Point

In 1917, a serious crisis emerged in Spain, exposing the inherent weaknesses of the Canovista system. This period was marked by significant internal and external pressures.

Causes of the Crisis

• Internal Division and Policy Vacuum: The dynastic parties suffered from deep internal divisions and a notable lack of relevant policies to address the nation's growing challenges.
• Economic Impact of World War I: Although Spain was neutral, the First World War provoked a sharp global price rise for essential products. This led to a significant decrease in the purchasing power of the working class, fueling widespread discontent.
• Influence of the Russian Revolution: The success of the Russian Revolution in 1917 awakened