Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Great Depression: Causes and Impact

At the end of the 1920s, a series of problems in the US caused a major economic crisis, known as the Great Depression. This crisis lasted until the end of the 1930s and brought an end to the prosperous, consumer lifestyle of the previous decade.

Problems Leading to the Crisis:

• Overproduction: American industry produced more goods than the population needed. When companies could not sell their products, they went bankrupt and had to close.
• Falling Consumption: When companies closed down, people lost their jobs and stopped spending money. Rising unemployment reduced demand for consumer goods and the raw materials used to make them, leading to more companies going out of business.
• The Wall Street Crash: When

Regions and Peoples

Flanders

A Dutch-speaking area in the north of Belgium, and one of the three Belgian regions.

Brotherhood

The belief that people should act with warmth and equality toward one another, regardless of differences in nationality, creed, or ethnicity.

Moriscos

Former Mudéjars (Muslims under Christian rule) who converted to Christianity.

Historical Events and Treaties

Peace of Augsburg

A treaty between Charles V and the forces of Lutheran princes on September 22, 1555.

Revolt of the Comuneros

An uprising in Castile from 1520 to 1521, where comuneros (participants) rebelled against the rule of Charles V.

Political and Economic Systems

Council of the Indies

The name given to two separate bodies associated with British rule in India at different... Continue reading "Glossary of Historical Terms: Spain and the Americas" »

The Era of Global Imperialism (1870–1914)

Imperialism refers to the territorial expansion of industrial countries—specifically the United States, Europe, and Japan—across Africa, Asia, and the Pacific Ocean between 1870 and 1914.

Key Characteristics

• Rapid Expansion: The process was extremely fast, with industrial nations conquering 66% of the world in just 20 years.
• Global Participation: Twelve colonial empires were formed, including Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, the USA, Russia, Great Britain, and Denmark.

Causes of Imperial Expansion

• Capital Investment: Great European capitalists sought to invest in new territories. This explains Britain's presence in India, though not all other regions.
• Market Acquisition:

Leninism and the Bolshevik Revolution

Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks opposed the international war, believing in transforming it into a revolutionary war within their own country. By 1920, the economy and the support of the peasantry were in jeopardy, and millions of people had perished from disease and malnutrition.

Lenin's Interpretation of Marxism

Marxists typically viewed the urban working class as the driving force for socialist revolution and were somewhat indifferent to the peasantry. Lenin, however, recognized that a revolution in Russia could only succeed with the alliance of the peasantry, as they constituted the majority of the population. He also introduced his concept of a vanguard party, composed of revolutionaries waging a class... Continue reading "Leninism vs. Marxism: Bolshevik Revolution Impact" »

The Mayflower Compact: A Foundation for Self-Governance

The Mayflower Compact, drafted in 1620, stands as the first governing document of Plymouth Colony. It was created by the male passengers of the Mayflower, a group composed of religious Separatists seeking freedom from persecution and individuals seeking economic opportunity. Facing unforeseen circumstances that landed them outside their intended Virginia territory, the Pilgrims established this compact to ensure order and survival.

Key Features of the Mayflower Compact:

• Majoritarian Model: The compact established a system of self-governance based on majority rule, although it excluded women and children from voting.
• Social Contract: The settlers agreed to abide by the compact's rules and regulations

Causes of Colonialism

Demography

• Population growth (Emigration; America, Africa, Australia).
• Economy

Economic

• Search for new markets: to get raw materials/to sell manufactured products.
• Thanks to the transport revolution (steam ships).

Politics

• Developed countries looked for dominance (expansionist policies).

The Berlin Conference

Before 1885, one powerful country could occupy new territory and simply say "this belongs to us now!".

After 1884, countries had to agree to the principle of "effective occupation". This meant that they had to administer the country, not just possess it. Africa was divided up mainly between Great Britain and France. This was supposed to reduce the possibilities of conflict over colonial territories. Holding the conference in... Continue reading "Colonialism, WWI, and Their Consequences: A Global Perspective" »

Guilds

The guilds were associations of artisans with the same trade. At the top were teachers, then officers, and finally apprentices with rules about working conditions. Artisans belonging to a guild lived on the same street.

Migration

Peasants migrated to cities due to an increase in rural population, leading to city growth. Cities became important as many peasants emigrated, recovering commercial importance and increasing food supply.

Main Causes in the Crisis

Feudal Europe faced problems in the 14th century, with peasants rebelling against lords, urban poor against oligarchy, and massive revolts due to the Black Death.

Religious Crisis

Within Catholicism, the Western Schism occurred, leading to a period of rupture with two popes.

Political Crisis

The... Continue reading "Guilds, Migration, and Crisis in Medieval Europe" »

The Decline of the Spanish Dynasty (1898-1917)

Assumed control of Spain in 1902, it was a period of political and social unrest. There was a movement called Regenerationism, conservative reformists led by Antonio Maura promoted revolution from above. Liberal reformists, Maura resigned after what became known as the Tragic Week, when a revolt in Barcelona in 1909 was harshly repressed. Opposition parties gained power: Republicans, Catalanistas, Socialists, and Anarchists. The turbulent atmosphere in 1917 led to protest movements across Spain.

The Dynasty and Dictatorship (1917-1931)

Multi-party governments: politicians from different parties joined together to combat post-crisis instability. Social conflict: deterioration of working conditions... Continue reading "The Decline of the Spanish Dynasty and the Rise of Dictatorship" »

EUROPEAN EMPIRE: Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary

The Advance of Democracy and Authoritarianism

The majority of the states that arose after World War I were democratic republics, and women gained political rights and suffrage.

• However, in some countries, authoritarian systems became the norm, many of which were inspired by the Mussolini dictatorship.
• The most important democracy of this period was the Weimar Republic, but it lacked strong popular support. (In 1923, Hitler attempted a coup in Munich.)

From Versailles to Locarno: Seeking Peace

The first years after WWI were marked by widespread dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Versailles.

Politicians attempted to avoid another war, leading to the signing of the Locarno Treaties (1925). Key outcomes included:

• Frontiers were recognized.
• Some areas,