Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Causes of Independence

• Latin American cities grew, becoming disconnected from Spain.
• Middle classes were influenced by liberal ideas from the French and American Revolutions.
• Creoles were excluded from important colonial positions.
• Britain supported independence to access South American markets.

Process of Independence

The process was violent. Fernando VII refused any agreement. In Mexico, social unrest led by Morelos and Hidalgo resulted in an indigenous uprising. Clerics were executed.

In South America, major rebellions occurred in Nueva Granada and Buenos Aires, led by Bolivar and San Martin. They met in Guayaquil, after which San Martin withdrew, ceding to Bolívar.

Their goal of a unified South America failed due to regional differences. The Battle...

The Spanish War of Independence: 1808-1813

The Uprising of May 2nd, 1808

On May 2nd, 1808, an uprising occurred in Madrid due to the departure of the royal family from the capital. The Spanish army was left on the sidelines, while some officers rebelled. Murat issued an edict in which he proclaimed his absolute authority and the death penalty for residents. The resignation of Fernando VII was interpreted as an imposition of force. The following day, the uprising extended throughout the country.

Phase 1: Initial Resistance

The balance of forces was very uneven. France was powerful, and Spain, accompanied by Portugal, was at a disadvantage. However, Spanish soldiers fought with strength and courage, utilizing their knowledge of the terrain. They...

Peninsular War and Constitution of 1812

Following the Treaty of Fontainebleau, signed by Spain and France, French troops entered Spanish territory, ostensibly to invade Portugal. The subsequent Mutiny of Aranjuez was instigated against the unpopular Manuel Godoy, provoking King Charles IV's abdication in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII. Napoleon Bonaparte then forced both to abdicate in Bayonne, installing his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as King of Spain. This marked the beginning of the War of Independence (Peninsular War).

During the conflict, the Cortes of Cádiz drafted the liberal Constitution of 1812. The Cortes adopted numerous reforms reflecting liberal principles, effectively ending the Ancien Régime.

Ferdinand VII: Absolutism and Liberal

Reasons for Independence

The rise of taxes imposed by Britain on the English colonists in the Thirteen Colonies, influenced by Enlightenment ideas, led to war among the settlers.

Declaration of Independence

The Declaration of Independence was proclaimed in Philadelphia on July 4, 1776. The U.S. Army defeated British troops, and peace was signed in 1783.

Napoleonic Empire

In 1804, Napoleon became emperor.

Domestic Affairs

The Civil Code was drawn up, guaranteeing private property and equality for all citizens.

Foreign Policy

Napoleon's empire stretched throughout Europe. Great Britain underwent a continental blockade. Napoleon was defeated in 1813 and exiled to the island of St. Helena.

Restoration and Liberalism

The union of monarchies and absolutists,...

Stalin's Dictatorship

From 1929, Stalin embodied an authentic personal dictatorship, leaning on the power of the Communist Party. The features of this dictatorship are summarized as follows:

• Cult of personality: Stalin was considered the great benefactor of all Russians.
• Marxism-Leninism: A religious doctrine.
• Mass party: A mass party tinged with Russian nationalism.
• Socialism in one country: Socialism in one country.
• Regime of terror: A reign of terror was imposed, even within the Communist Party itself.

Stalin's political goal was to industrialize the country in the shortest time possible, at any price. The measures were:

• Five-Year Plans: Targets to be achieved.
• Collectivization of agriculture: Replaced by collective farms, where the land of the villagers

Aristophanes: Master of Ancient Greek Comedy

Athenian dramatist Aristophanes is considered one of the greatest writers of comedies in the history of literature. His works have been performed over the centuries, and his wit, humor, and poetic language have secured a lasting popularity.

Life and Background of Aristophanes

Aristophanes, the son of Philip, is believed to have been born in the outskirts of Athens. He likely received a good education and may have owned land on the island of Aegina. He had three sons—Philip, Araros, and Nicostratus—all of whom became comic poets.

Aristophanes' Political and Philosophical Views

Aristophanes was known for his conservatism. He favored monarchy over democracy and upheld established philosophical and theological...

The Configuration of Catalan Politics in the 19th Century

During the six democratic years, there was an awakening of national consciousness in the form of Catalan anti-centralist popular movements, stimulated by the social problems of industrialization. Until the restoration of the Bourbons, a Catalan nationalist political movement did not articulate itself.

The First Demands: Federalists and Carlists

In the 1830s and 1840s, the first anti-centralist demonstrations occurred. Protests were more related to socio-political wings. Most occurred in urban areas, linked to the claims of workers who advocated for democratic federal republicanism. We can mention the rebellions against Espartero in 1842-1843. The incidence of Carlism in the rural world...

Spanish Constitution of 1845

Derived from the 1837 Constitution, it established the first Senate, composed of servants. The acquittal order after Fernando VII's death referenced the Carlist conflict against the Elizabethans. Six years of war ended with peace. The confiscation (1836-40) saw the Queen Regent of Spain appointing generals. At 13 years older than Isabel II, the introduction of the liberal model began, but military hypertrophy crumbled.

Ramón María Narváez

Duke of Valencia, a Spanish soldier and politician, served seven times as President of the Council of Ministers of Spain between 1844 and 1868. Known as the broadswords of Loja, his military career began in 1815. He sided with liberals during the Constitutional Triennium (1820-...

1. The Genesis of the Second Republic (1931)

The end of Primo de Rivera's dictatorship led King Alfonso XIII to reinstate the old system. However, municipal elections on April 12, 1931, resulted in a Republican victory in major cities, while monarchist parties dominated rural areas. Despite the overall monarchist vote, King Alfonso XIII went into exile, paving the way for the Second Republic.

2. The 1931 Constitution

Following the general election on June 9, 1931, a left-wing coalition, including Republican Socialists, secured a decisive victory. A new constitution was drafted with these key features:

• A Republican political system.
• Extensive human rights, including divorce and freedom of religion.
• Separation of church and state: Government subsidies

The Final Crisis of the Restoration: The Impact of the First World War and the Exhaustion of the Political System

During the last years of the reign of Alfonso XIII, the political and social bases of the Restoration weakened. The deterioration of the political system became more evident. A crisis erupted in 1917. The military, political, and social crisis was controlled by the government, but in the following years, its decomposition was evident, ultimately leading to the 1923 military coup of Primo de Rivera. Before the crisis of 1914, it's important to recall the Crisis of '98 and the Tragic Week in Barcelona in 1909, which also influenced the 1917 crisis.

The Crisis of 1917

The crisis of 1917 was due to the deterioration of political life and...