Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The End of the Tsars

Russia remained an absolute monarchy, with the Tsar as the monarch and supreme ruler. State power was exercised without limits, supported by the nobility, the Orthodox Church, the army, and the bureaucracy. The Duma (parliament) had limited powers, and political parties like the bourgeois party and the peasants' party (led by Kerensky) grew increasingly distant from the Tsarist forces. The Revolutionary Workers' Party split into Mensheviks (moderate) and Bolsheviks (radical, led by Lenin).

Revolution 1905

The Tsarist army was defeated by Japanese troops in a war motivated by Russian expansion in Asia. On January 9, masses marched to the Tsar's palace to denounce the government and demand political reforms. The government responded...

Land Reform in the Second Spanish Republic

Land reform was a structural and serious problem in a country that was still predominantly agricultural. The Republic played its prestige and credibility in addressing this issue. Amid increasing public pressure, the authorities were forced to implement reforms. F.L. Knight, Minister of Labor, was the real driver of these measures to improve conditions for farmers. Several legal measures were immediately adopted:

• Municipal Decree, April 20, 1931: Forced employers to hire day laborers from the municipality itself, preventing the hiring of scabs.
• Land Reform Act, September 1932: This Act provided for the expropriation, with compensation, of large farms that were not directly cultivated by their owners.

Italian Fascism in Post-War Italy

The end of the Great War left Italy with serious human and economic consequences: 700,000 men died, many industries were left unused, and high foreign debt had increased inflation. For many Italians, the cost of living was increasing while wages fell, and the number of unemployed never stopped growing. Also, the peace accords were a great disappointment as the Allies agreed to surrender to Italy Trentino, Trieste, and Istria, but not Fiume and Dalmatia, as had been agreed in the Treaty of London (1915). This started to spread the idea that Italy's participation had been a hoax, and that was gaining support for irredentism. This situation led to extreme political instability: the governments of the monarchy did...

Item 11

**Formation of the Blocks**

**1.2 Origins of the Break**

The primary reason for the split between these two blocks was ideology. Consequently, the Cold War resulted from disagreement about the political order. For the Western bloc, democracy meant the development of individual freedoms within a context of parliamentary liberalism, respectful of different policy options and the legal existence of political organizations and unions. The USSR extended its influence into Poland, Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, and East Germany, where democracies constituted a socialist economy and a clearly aligned foreign policy.

**1.3 The Marshall Plan**

This plan called for military intervention and economic aid to all European countries...

The Spanish Civil War: Origins and Aftermath

The Spanish Civil War, a pivotal conflict of the 20th century, arose from a complex interplay of long-term historical grievances and immediate political and economic crises. Its profound consequences reshaped Spain's future for decades.

Long-Term Causes (Pre-1930)

• The Liberal Revolution in Spain: The legacy of Spain's liberal revolution, marked by direct military involvement in politics and the use of conflict to resolve disputes.
• Conservative Military Ideology: The Spanish army's entrenched conservative ideology and its opposition to regional nationalisms.
• Delayed Modernization: Spain's slow ideological and economic modernization, characterized by a late Industrial Revolution and a predominantly agrarian

What is the Intention to Carry Sigismund to the Palace?

Basilio intends to carry Sigismund to the palace to prevent him from overthrowing him and becoming a tyrant, as the stars had foretold.

How Does Sigismund React When Clotaldo Tells Him Why He Took Him from the Tower?

While initially surprised, Sigismund changes dramatically in the way he thinks and acts with other people.

What Were Sigismund's Reasons for Throwing a Servant from a Balcony of the Palace?

The servant challenged him, and when Sigismund said he would throw him from the balcony, the servant dared him to do it. Sigismund then grabbed him by the feet and threw him out the window.

How Does Basilio React When He Learns What Happened to the Servant?

He is annoyed and asks that Sigismund...

Major Challenges of Spain's Sexenio Democrático

The Ten Years' War in Cuba (1868-1878)

In October 1868, an armed insurrection, launched by Carlos Manuel de Céspedes with the famous Grito de Yara, broke out in Cuba. The United States supported this movement, and President Grant repeatedly expressed his sympathy for the Cubans, while pressuring Spain to sell the island. Attempts to resolve the independence movement through reforms, seeking to abolish slavery and grant Cuba political autonomy, failed. Negotiations with the rebels, led by General Sweet, also proved unsuccessful, and the war intensified. Even attempts at appeasement failed, and it became a protracted war of attrition, which did not allow a definitive victory for either side.

The

The Final Years of the Franco Dictatorship (1973–1975)

The Crisis of Continuity and the Carrero Blanco Assassination

The Franco regime failed to adapt to social demands within the changing international context, which ultimately precipitated its end. The crisis intensified with the appointment of Carrero Blanco as President in 1973. His role was intended to ensure the continuity of the regime after Franco's death. However, on December 20 of that year, Carrero Blanco was assassinated by ETA in a car bombing in Madrid.

This event widened the split between two factions:

• The Immobile (The Bunker): Those calling for strict continuity, opposed to change. This group, composed of military commanders and old Falangists, formed the "Bunker."
• The Overtures:

The Franco Regime: Totalitarian Rule in Spain

General Franco won the Spanish Civil War and established a totalitarian regime. Dictatorial rule was adopted, rejecting all other political authorities. The regime was founded upon a radical fundamentalism known as National Catholicism (Nacional-catolicismo), which laid the foundation for the opposing phalanx in religion and society.

The regime utilized rhetoric regarding innovation and social programs to provide an intellectual perspective useful to the Falangist movement. The theories were simple and appealed to many people.

Ideological Foundations: National Catholicism and Falangism

The authoritarian regime was characterized by a strict military order and a sharp trend toward centralism, particularly...

Spain's Transition to Democracy After Franco

The Beginning of the Transition (1975)

The transition to democracy in Spain began in 1975, following the death of Francisco Franco. To facilitate this transition, two key groups emerged. King Juan Carlos I was appointed, not as his hereditary title dictated, but because people believed he would usher in the end of Franco's dictatorship and establish democracy for all. Collaboration from the Spanish people was crucial to achieving this goal.

Social Unrest and Demands for Change

The populace was largely against the existing government, particularly the Arias Navarro administration. There was significant social unrest, highlighted by approximately 20,000 strikes in a single year. People demanded democratization,...