Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Franco’s Dictatorship

1. Franco: Caudillo of Spain

He had all the power. He was Head of State, Head of Government, and the Supreme General of the Armed Forces. There was no division of power in Spain.

2. NO-DO

Noticiarios y documentales (NO-DO) was a state-controlled series of cinema newsreels in Spain (1943-1981). The NO-DO was watched by all citizens at the cinema, and it was full of one-sided (national) propaganda.

3. Sección Femenina

Sección Femenina was the female branch of the Falange, which guided the life of women.

4. Propaganda

Propaganda was strongly used by the National side, and thanks to the one used for the Referendum of 1947 (regarding the law of succession), Franco got power for life. Apart from that, he was given the right to choose... Continue reading "Francoist Spain: Dictatorship, Memory, and History" »

International Agreements of the 1920s

France's Treaties (1920)

Countries: Belgium, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia.
Goal: To protect France from future German attacks by creating military and friendship treaties with Germany's neighbors.
Outcome: Successful.

Geneva Protocol (1924)

Countries: Britain and France.
Goal: To strengthen the League of Nations' authority in disputes by requiring members to seek League arbitration and accept its decisions. Armed forces could be used against aggressors.
Outcome: Not successful.

Dawes Plan (1924)

Countries: USA, Britain, France, Belgium, Germany.
Goal: To address Germany's economic collapse and inability to pay reparations. The plan extended Germany's reparation payment period, offered American loans... Continue reading "International Agreements of the 1920s: A Path to Peace?" »

Francoist Cortes Dissolution

This law was approved by the Francoist Cortes, although it meant their own dissolution. To convoke elections, it was necessary to put an end to the Francoist Cortes; this law abolished those Cortes.

1977: A Year of Change

In the first six months of 1977, significant changes were made:

• Further amnesty for political prisoners
• Independent trade unions replaced vertical syndicates
• Right to strike was restored
• Legalization of political parties began in February

June 1977 Elections

Elections were convoked in June 1977, after trade unions and the PCE (Communist Party of Spain) were legalized. The UCD (Union of the Democratic Centre) won, and the PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers' Party) came second. Another feature was the important... Continue reading "Spain's Transition to Democracy: Reforms and Challenges (1977-1985)" »

CONSTRUCTION OF THE LIBERAL STATE (1833-1874)

The First Carlist War and the Rise of Isabelline Spain

Ferdinand VII's decision to allow female succession through the Pragmatic Sanction sparked conflict with his brother, Carlos Mª Isidro, leading to the First Carlist War (1833-1839). The Carlists, supporters of Carlos, defended absolutism and traditional institutions, while the Isabelline faction, backing Isabella II, embraced liberalism and reform.

Following a series of Carlist defeats, the Isabelline forces, led by General Espartero, emerged victorious. The Vergara Agreement of 1839 officially ended the war, granting amnesty to Carlist soldiers while preserving some regional autonomy (fueros).

The Implantation of the Liberal State (1833-1843)

During... Continue reading "The Rise of the Liberal State in Spain (1833-1874)" »

Phases of the French Revolution

Constitutional Monarchy (1789-1792)

Once in the Estates General, the Third Estate proposed to change the voting system to one individual vote per member. The king refused, and the bourgeoisie declared themselves the true representatives of the nation. They proclaimed a National Assembly and pledged to draft a constitution. The king eventually agreed to demands, and a National Constituent Assembly was formed to abolish feudalism, approve the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens, and draw up a constitution based on the separation of power and national sovereignty with limited male suffrage (suffrage censitaire). The Legislative Assembly began to govern with the rules of the constitution, forcing the nobility... Continue reading "French Revolution Phases and Napoleon's Rise to Power" »

In the post-Cold War era, NATO and the European Union (EU) faced significant challenges. From its inception in 1918, Yugoslavia had been subject to strong centrifugal tendencies. World War II resistance leader Josip Broz Tito restored Yugoslav unity, largely due to the unifying force of communist ideology. This delicate balance teetered after his death in 1980 and completely collapsed after January 1990.

Breakup of Yugoslavia and Early Conflicts

• In December 1990, Serbs elected Slobodan Milošević, who subsequently seized national assets on behalf of Serbia.
• Slovenia declared independence in December 1990.
• As fighting erupted over disputed territories with mixed populations, the presidents of the six republics failed to revive a loose confederation.

The Rise of Suburban America

War Aftermath: Prosperity and Fear

Economic Recovery Under Roosevelt

• Federal war investments finally brought economic recovery.
• Debt rose from $43 billion to more than $200 billion.
• Conflict between business and labor cooled to cooperate in the war effort.
• Industrial production doubled in 1942 and continued to increase steadily.
• Full employment reached for the first time in the 20th century.

Workers’ income increased by 50%, and corporate profits doubled.

Investment continued to a large extent due to the war (Carroll and Noble, 349).

President Harry S. Truman (1945-1953)

The Cold War Emerges: Nuclear Threat

President Truman declared, “We must constitute ourselves trustees of this new force,” referring to nuclear weapons... Continue reading "Post-War America: Economic Boom and the Dawn of the Cold War" »

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World War I and the Interwar Period

The Outbreak of World War I (June 1914)

June 1914 marked the beginning of a series of events that plunged Europe into World War I. Following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Serbian student, Austria-Hungary demanded compensation and subsequently declared war on Serbia. This triggered a cascade of declarations: Germany declared war on Russia, France declared war on Germany to support Russia, Germany then declared war on France, and finally, France and Britain declared war on Austria-Hungary.

Propaganda in World War I

Propaganda, information designed to give a one-sided view of events through careful selection, played a crucial role during the war. Main propaganda techniques included:

• Establish

Political Effects of the Great Depression

• Political effects:

1. Governments were criticized, especially democrats.
2. Many countries turned to dictatorship.
3. Japan, Italy, and later Germany threatened the peace and security of other nations.
4. International tensions rose as global trade collapsed.

Influence on Global Powers

• Influence on powers:

1. US: High unemployment turned voters against President Hoover, leading to his defeat.
2. Germany: The Weimar government struggled, allowing fascism to rise as Hitler promised a strong government and a better life.
3. Italy: Mussolini sought to build a new Roman Empire by expanding power abroad to distract citizens from economic problems.
4. France: The luxury goods market, such as wine, collapsed, leading to unemployment and the