Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Russian Revolution is dated to November 1917 (October 1917 on the Russian calendar), when Bolshevik Party forces took over the government offices in Petrograd. However, the problems that led toward revolution had been developing for generations. The revolution’s consequences, too, were far-reaching—the Communist Party, which formed to lead post-revolutionary Russia, remained in power until 1991.

Causes of the Russian Revolution

• Widespread suffering under **autocracy**—a form of government in which one person, in this case the **Czar**, has absolute power.
• Weak leadership of **Czar Nicholas II**, who clung to autocracy despite changing times.
• Poor working conditions, low wages, and hazards of industrialization.
• Emergence of new revolutionary

World War I was the first global conflict since the Industrial Revolution, and with it came a new generation of weapons. The causes of the First World War are heterogeneous, but their combination led to the start of the Great War in 1914, ending in 1918. Among the causes of the First World War are the following: Militarism, Imperialism, Nationalism, and Alliances. The Treaty of Versailles points to Germany as responsible for the war. Surely it wasn't the only responsible party, but Germany's actions were the ones that led to the war. The truth is that once the war was ending, all the responsibility for its beginning fell on Germany, and this was reflected in writing in Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (1919). This was the first peace... Continue reading "Causes of World War I: Was Germany to Blame?" »

The Germania Revolt (1519-1523)

Between 1519 and 1523, significant unrest occurred, notably the Germania Revolt, which also affected Mallorca and Valencia. The reasons were similar to other contemporary uprisings, but these revolts were led by the Germanías (guilds) who confronted both the king and the nobility. The leaders of the revolt were severely repressed.

Organization of Charles V's Empire

The empire of Charles V comprised many diverse territories, each possessing its own laws and institutions. Charles V did not wield absolute power; crucial decisions required the approval of the Parliaments within each kingdom.

The royal court was itinerant, moving between locations. Each territory was managed by a viceroy or governor who ruled in the... Continue reading "Charles V's Empire: Germania Revolt & European Conflicts" »

Preparing for the First Voyage

After receiving Queen Isabella's support, Columbus went to Huelva to organize the expedition with the help of Franciscan monks in the Friary of La Rábida. The Pinzóns, a family of ship owners, helped Columbus organize a fleet of 105 sailors and three ships: a carrack (the Santa María) and two caravels (the Pinta and the Niña).

The First Expedition to the Unknown

The 1492 Journey

The expedition left the port of Palos (Huelva) on 3 August 1492. On 12 October 1492, they arrived on Guanahani Island in the Bahamas, which Columbus named San Salvador.

In the following weeks, they explored Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic) and Cuba, and they began their return journey in January 1493.

The Later Expeditions

• Second

Imperialism and its Impact (1870-1914)

Imperialism is the control exercised by certain powerful states over other territories. In the late 19th century, a new, complex type of imperialism took shape on a much larger scale. This new imperialism reached its height between 1870 and 1914 and was dominated by the industrialized countries (colonial empires).

Types of Colonial Administration

• Colony: Territory dominated entirely by the occupying power. There are two types: settler colonies and exploitation colonies.
• Protectorate: Theoretically, the metropole respected the native government.
• Concession: Administration and occupation of a territory within a state for the purpose of trade.

Causes of Imperialism

• Demographic: European demographic growth over the

The Cold War

The Cold War was a period of constant tension between the United States and the USSR that lasted from 1948 to 1989. During these years, each superpower aimed to demonstrate and increase its own power, while at the same time limiting or reducing the influence of the other. However, both the Americans and the Soviets wanted to avoid a direct military confrontation, since this could lead to nuclear war.

The Great Depression

At the end of the 1920s, a series of problems in the United States caused a major economic crisis, known as the Great Depression. This crisis lasted until the end of the 1930s and brought an end to the prosperous, consumer lifestyle of the previous decade.

Causes of the Great Depression

The problems that led to the... Continue reading "The Cold War and Great Depression: A Comparative Analysis" »

This analysis delves into Charles Sackville, Earl of Dorset's poem, "My Opinion," penned around 1681. The poem offers a sharp commentary on the tumultuous succession conflict that marked the final years of Charles II's reign in England.

Historical Context: Charles II and the Restoration Era

Charles II's Reign and Early Restoration

Charles II reigned in England from 1661 to 1685. His early life included a period of exile when England was a republic under Cromwell's regime, the Commonwealth, following the execution of Charles I at the end of the English Civil War. This restrictive regime led to widespread discontent. In 1659, soon after Cromwell's death, the English people compelled his son and successor, Richard, to abdicate and recalled Charles... Continue reading "Charles Sackville's 'My Opinion': Restoration Political Satire" »

From Progressive 2-Years to the Glorious Revolution (1854-1868)

Progressive 2-Years (1854-1856)

Narvaez's power was becoming more and more dictatorial, which provoked discontent and ended in a coup d'etat by General O'Donnell. He published the Manzanares Manifesto and obtained wide popular backing. He created a new political party: the Liberal Union (between moderates and progressives).

Finally, the coup d'etat was successful and Espartero returned and formed a government.

In this time, some measures were adopted such as the Madoz disentitlement, the elaboration of a new progressive constitution (never applied) by the Constituent Courts, and the creation of the Railroad Law for economic modernization.

New political groups appeared:

• Democrats: asked

Walt Whitman

• Born in New York into a laboring family of agriculturists (the working class.)
• His family has nine children and he was the second childegan working at the age of 12 as a printer in Brooklyn and New York City.
• Became a journalist and editor of the Brooklyn Daily Eagle in NY. He was later fired because he supported the antislavery Free Soil faction of the Democratic Party.
• Traveled via the Mississippi River to Louisiana and worked on the Crescent and later returned to NY.
• Saw many Shakespeare plays
• Back in NY he began experimenting with a new style of poetry
• Published his first edition of Leaves of Grass in 1855 with no publisher nor author name.
• The third edition of 1860 included Calamus and Premonition later called Started from Pumanok.

Imperialism and Colonialism

Imperialism: Colonialism is the policy or practice of extending a state's rule over other weaker territories. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the main colonizers were the USA and European powers. As population increased, so did unemployment and surpluses. Colonies provided cheaper raw materials and new resources of energy. Imperial powers imposed their culture and language on native populations. These imperial powers were the origins of World War I, and the world economy became imbalanced.

Modernism in Architecture

Modernism: This was an artistic response to industrial objects and industrial architecture, which modernists found unattractive. Modernist architects designed all elements of their buildings,... Continue reading "Key Historical Movements: Imperialism, Modernism, and Marxism" »