Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Primo de Rivera

In 1923 another pronunciamiento took place: General Miguel Primo de Rivera came to power with the consent of the king. Public disorder was rampant, and the system wasn't working. Primo de Rivera had been in Catalonia as Captain General. They thought he could bring calm and peace.

Primo de Rivera wanted to regenerate the system and later he would give the power back again. It did not work. He stayed for longer than promised and became unpopular. He tried to start a political party, the Unión Patriótica.

His dictatorship can be divided into two periods: Military Directory (1923-1925) and Civil Directory (1925-1930). He had great success at the beginning. Along with the French, the Spanish Army defeated the Moroccan rebel Abd-el-... Continue reading "The Second Spanish Republic: From Dictatorship to Civil War" »

The Opening of Japan to Trade in the 19th Century

The United States and the Opening to Japan, 1853: On July 8, 1853, American Commodore Matthew Perry led his four ships into the harbor at Tokyo Bay, seeking to re-establish, for the first time in over 200 years, regular trade and discourse between Japan and the Western world.

Why Was Commodore Perry Sent to Japan?

Perry, on behalf of the U.S. government, forced Japan to enter into trade with the United States and demanded a treaty permitting trade and the opening of Japanese ports to U.S. merchant ships. The Japanese had no navy with which to defend themselves, and thus they had to agree to the demand.

Italian Unification: Causes and Effects

What Caused the Italian Unification?

Those who stood for... Continue reading "19th-Century Unifications: Japan, Italy, Germany & USA" »

Post-Napoleonic Europe: The Restoration Era

After Napoleon was defeated in the War of Independence of Spain and ultimately in 1815, the Restoration period began. This marked a return to the political system of the Ancien Régime, known as absolutism.

The Quadruple Alliance (Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain) met at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815). Key measures adopted included:

• The restoration of absolute monarchs to their thrones.
• A restructuring of the European map.
• An agreement among European monarchs to support any legitimate monarch facing threats.

This return to absolutism, however, provoked resistance and fueled revolutions driven by new ideas:

• Liberalism
• Nationalism
• Democracy

Key Ideologies of the 19th Century

Liberalism was an ideology... Continue reading "Europe After Napoleon: Restoration & Change" »

Roman Expansion and Mediterranean Dominance

As Rome expanded through Italy, it granted its citizen-soldiers land, allowed defeated Latin-speakers to become full citizens, and welcomed defeated soldiers into its army. By 272 B.C.E., Rome had conquered the Italian peninsula. Victory in the Second Punic War gave Rome control of the Western Mediterranean. Rome's defeat of the Macedonians and the Greeks in 133 B.C.E. brought it control of the Eastern Mediterranean.

Rome's Longevity, Transformation, and Decline

Rome's empire persisted for so long because of its rulers’ willingness to adopt new structures, such as the Principate and Diocletian's Tetrarchy. Emperor Constantine strengthened the empire but weakened the city of Rome by establishing a new... Continue reading "The Roman Empire: Expansion, Governance, and Enduring Legacy" »

The Korean War (1950-1953)

Why?

After World War II, Korea was divided along the 38th parallel. North Korea, aiming for reunification under communist rule, invaded the South.

Who?

• North Korea (supported by China and the USSR)
• South Korea (supported by the UN, primarily the USA and Great Britain)

Outcome:

The war ended in a stalemate, with the border remaining largely unchanged. The Korean War is significant as the only Cold War conflict that remains unresolved. North Korea's nuclear ambitions continue to pose a threat today.

The Vietnam War (1954-1975)

Why?

During the decolonization of French Indochina after World War II, Vietnam was divided into communist North Vietnam and capitalist South Vietnam. The possibility of South Vietnam falling to communism... Continue reading "Understanding the Cold War: Key Conflicts and Causes" »

Stalinism in the USSR

System: A totalitarian government established in the USSR by Joseph Stalin that eliminated all possible political rivals and took control of the Communist Party (CPSU).

Politics

Political power: Held by Stalin. He gained control as CPSU General Secretary and as head of government. The system placed party leaders in control of the country. The 1936 Constitution was approved. The CPSU became the only legal political party and the Soviet state sought to spread communism via the Comintern (Third International).

Economy

Planned state economy: Means of production were state property and the state planned economic activity through Five-Year Plans.

• Five-Year Plans: Centralized planning to increase heavy industry and capital goods production.

Richard Lovelace: "To Althea, from Prison" (1642)

This celebrated poem, “To Althea, from Prison,” was written in 1642 by Richard Lovelace, a prominent Cavalier poet. The year 1642 marked the beginning of the tumultuous English Civil War, providing a critical context for the poem's creation.

The Reign of Charles I and Political Conflict

The political climate was highly volatile. King Charles I, like all the Stuarts, staunchly believed in the Divine Right of Kings, asserting that the monarch’s power was conferred directly by God and therefore could not be disputed. This belief led to serious conflicts with the Parliament, which sought to control the King’s government, particularly regarding taxation.

Charles I attempted to circumvent parliamentary... Continue reading "Richard Lovelace's "To Althea, from Prison": Cavalier Poetry Context" »

Into how many categories the religious sects that originated during the 6th century B.C. can be divided? Ans.

The religious sects of the 6th century B.C. can be divided into two categories:

1. The faiths which were openly against Vedic religion
2. The faiths which did not oppose Vedic religion openly but propagated new principles venerating one or the other old divinity.

What do you mean by “Dharma Chakra Pravartana”? Ans.

Dharma Chakra Pravartana means ‘sitting in motion the wheel of Dharma’. The first religious discourse or sermon delivered by Mahatma Buddha after attaining enlightenment at Mrig dav or Deer Park of Sarnath near Varanasi, is known as ‘Maha chakra Pravartana’

Mention the various incarnations of Vishnu according to Vaishnavism.

Nazi Control in Germany: The Police State

The Gestapo

The Gestapo, under Reinhard Heydrich's command, was the most feared force by ordinary German citizens. Gestapo agents had sweeping powers, including arresting citizens on suspicion and sending them to concentration camps without trial. Fear of the Gestapo led to widespread informing on each other among ordinary Germans.

The Police and Courts

The police and courts also played a role in propping up the Nazi dictatorship. High-ranking Nazis were appointed to top positions in local police forces, reporting directly to Himmler. The police engaged in political snooping in addition to their regular law and order duties, and they were instructed to ignore crimes committed by Nazi agents. The Nazis also... Continue reading "Nazi Control in Germany: The Police State and Propaganda Machine" »

Franco’s Dictatorship

1. Franco: Caudillo of Spain

He had all the power. He was Head of State, Head of Government, and the Supreme General of the Armed Forces. There was no division of power in Spain.

2. NO-DO

Noticiarios y documentales (NO-DO) was a state-controlled series of cinema newsreels in Spain (1943-1981). The NO-DO was watched by all citizens at the cinema, and it was full of one-sided (national) propaganda.

3. Sección Femenina

Sección Femenina was the female branch of the Falange, which guided the life of women.

4. Propaganda

Propaganda was strongly used by the National side, and thanks to the one used for the Referendum of 1947 (regarding the law of succession), Franco got power for life. Apart from that, he was given the right to choose... Continue reading "Francoist Spain: Dictatorship, Memory, and History" »