Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The First World War

Relations tightened during an armed peace.

The Reasons for the Outbreak

The causes of the First World War were:

• Territorial claims of different countries like Russia and Austria-Hungary.
• Economic rivalries, especially between Germany and the UK.
• Colonial interests in Germany (Moroccan crisis).
• The formation of two blocs:
  • Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy)
  • Triple Entente (France, UK, and Russia)

Belligerent Countries

The Triple Alliance was joined by the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria, while Italy switched to the opposing bloc. This bloc was called the Central Powers.

The Triple Entente was joined by Belgium, Romania, Italy, Greece, Portugal, and Japan. This bloc was called the Allies.

The Central Powers had a more powerful...

March 24, 1976: Anniversary of the Coup and the National Day of Memory for Truth and Justice

On this day, a military junta led by General Jorge Rafael Videla, Admiral Emilio Eduardo Massera, and Brigadier Orlando Ramon Agosti overthrew President María Estela Martínez de Perón. The junta initiated the National Reorganization Process, aiming to restructure the state and society. Congress was dissolved, political parties were suspended, and provincial and municipal governments were addressed.

April 2, 1982: Veterans Day and the Fall of the Falklands War

Argentine forces landed on the Falkland Islands in an attempt to reclaim sovereignty lost to Britain in 1833. This action, known as the Falklands War, ended on June 14th with Argentina's surrender....

Genesis of the Cold War (1945-1947)

Defining Cold War Characteristics

The Cold War system of international relations defined the period between 1945 and 1991. During that time, the world was divided into antagonistic blocs, one led by the U.S. and the other by the Soviet Union. Each bloc represented a different political, economic, and ideological view.

The Western bloc defended a democratic political system, a capitalist economy, and liberal ideology. The Communist bloc defended a totalitarian political system, a planned economy, and Marxist ideology.

The two superpowers sought to maintain their security and to extend or protect their areas of influence using all available means without direct warfare, since this involved the use of nuclear weapons...

Former Allies: Capitalism vs. Socialism

Following the removal of fascist powers, two dominant ideologies remained in the Western political landscape: capitalism, spearheaded by the United States, and socialism, led by the USSR during the 19th century.

• Capitalism, adopted by many countries including America and Japan, was based on private property, free trade with minimal state intervention, and a liberal-democratic system characterized by class differentiation, parliaments, and elected governments.
• Socialism, or Communism, as practiced in the USSR, diverged significantly. It rejected private property, embraced a state-controlled economy, and aimed to eliminate social classes.

Both superpowers sought to expand their influence, leading to a period...

Causes of European Discoveries

The Europeans needed to find new commercial routes to the East because, in 1453, the Turks captured Constantinople. This disrupted trade routes between Europe and the Far East.

Technical Advances

New maps, portulans, were designed especially for navigation. They drew the lines of the maritime coast and the obstacles. These indicated the shortest distance between ports using straight lines.

Portuguese Shipments

Portuguese expeditions inched forward. First, they incorporated the Madeira and Azores islands into their territories. Then, they headed south and skirted the coast of Africa. They doubled Cape Bojador and reached the Gulf of Guinea.

In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope.

Vasco da Gama arrived...

Spain's Political Turmoil: From Bourbon Succession to Napoleonic Invasion

The abrogation of the Salic Law, which traditionally prevented women from inheriting the Spanish throne, sparked significant political unrest. This measure was vehemently opposed by Don Carlos, brother of King Ferdinand VII and until then the designated successor, who garnered the support of absolutist factions. Consequently, Maria Cristina, Ferdinand VII's wife, who assumed the regency during the King's final months, was compelled to seek the backing of moderate liberals. This alliance marked a crucial rapprochement between the liberal movement and the monarchy, setting the stage for future conflicts.

The Reign of Charles IV and the French Revolution's Shadow

The political...

Regime in Opposition to Deliver It: The Carlist Wars and the Foral Question

The First Carlist War (1833-1839)

The government acceded very strongly to deliver it. Maria Cristina saw an oppositional, anti-liberal traditionalist group, the Carlists, gathered around the *Infante* Don Carlos, Count of Molina (brother of Fernando VII). The Carlists accepted that bringing them went against the way of thinking of the Spanish people, and additionally, they identified the new industries (machinery) with low-quality work. Part of the clergy and the current state supported the *medio* (which had disappeared in the 10th century and the first fruits), as well as the lower nobility, with the objective (among others) of obtaining charges at birth. Their motto...

German Pavilion by Mies van der Rohe

The German Pavilion, designed by Mies van der Rohe, is a seminal work of mid-century architecture, completed in 1929.

Historical Context (1929)

In 1929, Spain was under the reign of Alfonso XIII, with Primo de Rivera holding power. Meanwhile, Germany was the Weimar Republic. The German population was growing, with industry being the main occupation.

Mies van der Rohe's Career

Mies van der Rohe was a leading representative of rationalist architecture. Of German origin, his career can be divided into two parts. His initial training and practice were in Berlin until just after World War I, a period when Germany was devastated. He was part of a group tasked with rebuilding the country. Thereafter, his career ascended....

Azana Speech Text is a speech with political content by Manuel Azaña, a historical political figure during the War, Prime Minister, and President of the Republic, delivered before the Spanish Constituent Assembly of 1931, arising from the June 1931 elections. The text is from the fall of 1931 and was addressed to the deputies of the Cortes.
The intention is to defend a secular state, notably articles 26 and 27 of the Constitution, and to argue that regime change must address the deep problems of the country, including the oligarchic rule of the people, concentrated ownership, and the role of the Church. The author first raises in his speech that we are in a revolution that began with the fall of the biggest responsibility for the misfortunes...

The Russian Revolution

During the era of the Tsars, a select few enjoyed wealth and favorable living conditions, while peasants endured meager wages. Ultimately, the people prevailed, initiating a revolution that led to the Bolsheviks, led by URS Lenin, establishing the Social Democratic Party.

Stalin's Era

The Bolsheviks formed the Red Army. Internal conflicts within the Bolshevik party led to its renaming as the Communist Party. The Soviet Union consolidated power, becoming a single-party state where other parties were excluded. Following the USSR's creation, a struggle for totalitarian power ensued.

Lenin's Death and Power Struggles

Lenin died during a period of debate on consolidating the revolution, marked by internal clashes.

Stalinism and