Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Advance of Democracy and Authoritarianism

The majority of the states that arose after World War I were democratic republics, and women gained political rights and suffrage.

• However, in some countries, authoritarian systems became the norm, many of which were inspired by the Mussolini dictatorship.
• The most important democracy of this period was the Weimar Republic, but it lacked strong popular support. (In 1923, Hitler attempted a coup in Munich.)

From Versailles to Locarno: Seeking Peace

The first years after WWI were marked by widespread dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Versailles.

Politicians attempted to avoid another war, leading to the signing of the Locarno Treaties (1925). Key outcomes included:

• Frontiers were recognized.
• Some areas,

The Russian Revolution

Domestic Policy Under Nicholas II

Nicholas II, an absolute monarch, ruled Russia with the support of the nobility and the Orthodox Church. However, several clandestine parties opposed his regime, including:

• Constitutional Democratic Party: Advocated for transforming Russia into a constitutional monarchy.
• Socialist Revolutionary Party: Sought to collectivize land ownership.
• Mensheviks: Favored a gradual transition to socialism through liberal reforms.
• Bolsheviks: Aimed to establish a proletariat dictatorship led by the communist party.

Russia's economy was primarily agrarian, with 80% of the population being peasants. Although serfdom had been abolished, the relationship between nobility and peasants remained feudal. Industrialization... Continue reading "The Russian Revolution: From Tsarism to Communism" »

Exam B

1. The Constitution of 1812

This is a juridical text written at the time. This text contains the articles of the Constitution of 1812, which was the first in the history of Spain. It recognized individual agents as equals before the law and established national sovereignty. Absolutism was replaced by a liberal political system, including the separation of powers.

2. Key Events of the 19th Century

• Greece claiming independence from the Ottoman Empire (1829)
• Convention of Vergara (1839)
• First Spanish Republic (1873-1874)
• Battle of Ayacucho (1824)
• Construction of the Madrid-Aranjuez railway (1851)

3. Political Groups and Disentailment

Afrancesados and Patriots

Afrancesados embraced the new morality and supported its reforms. This group of Spaniards... Continue reading "Spain's 19th Century: Constitution, Parties, and Disentailment" »

European Wars

The story of Europe is not about great achievements of which we can be proud. European nations have fought terrible wars against each other. In the 20th century, two wars that started on this continent spread and involved countries all over the world.

Founding of the European Union

If you want to prevent war, you have to work together. The first step is to control jointly the things needed for war: steel for weapons and energy for factories.

European Coal and Steel Community

That is why six European countries (Germany, Luxembourg, Belgium, France, Italy, Netherlands) agreed to unite their steel and coal industries.

European Economic Community

The six countries got on so well that they decided to go a step further and set up the E.E.C.... Continue reading "A History of European Integration and Spanish Autonomy" »

The Catholic Monarchs and the Unification of Spain

Background

In the 15th century, the Iberian Peninsula was divided into five kingdoms, with the Kingdom of Castile and the Crown of Aragon being the largest and most powerful. In 1469, Prince Ferdinand of Aragon married Isabella, the sister of the Castilian King Henry IV. This union marked the beginning of a new era in Spanish history.

The Catholic Monarchs

Ferdinand and Isabella became known as the Catholic Monarchs. They preserved the autonomy and independence of each kingdom, but they also worked together to strengthen the monarchy and unify Spain.

Ferdinand became king of Aragon in 1479, and Isabella defeated her niece Joanna la Beltraneja in a civil war that lasted five years. After the war,... Continue reading "The Catholic Monarchs and the Age of Exploration" »

The Inter-War Years: A Transformative Era

The inter-war years (1918-1939) were marked by significant economic and political developments across the globe.

Economic Prosperity and Crisis

Europe and the United States initially enjoyed a period of economic prosperity, famously known as the Roaring Twenties. However, this era of growth dramatically ended after 1929, when a severe economic crisis, the Great Depression, began.

Political Landscape Shifts

Politically, countries like Great Britain, France, and the United States maintained their democratic systems. In contrast, many other nations saw the establishment of authoritarian dictatorships. Notably, the Soviet Union and Germany evolved into totalitarian regimes.

Spain's Path: From Dictatorship to

The Russian Revolution is dated to November 1917 (October 1917 on the Russian calendar), when Bolshevik Party forces took over the government offices in Petrograd. However, the problems that led toward revolution had been developing for generations. The revolution’s consequences, too, were far-reaching—the Communist Party, which formed to lead post-revolutionary Russia, remained in power until 1991.

Causes of the Russian Revolution

• Widespread suffering under **autocracy**—a form of government in which one person, in this case the **Czar**, has absolute power.
• Weak leadership of **Czar Nicholas II**, who clung to autocracy despite changing times.
• Poor working conditions, low wages, and hazards of industrialization.
• Emergence of new revolutionary

World War I was the first global conflict since the Industrial Revolution, and with it came a new generation of weapons. The causes of the First World War are heterogeneous, but their combination led to the start of the Great War in 1914, ending in 1918. Among the causes of the First World War are the following: Militarism, Imperialism, Nationalism, and Alliances. The Treaty of Versailles points to Germany as responsible for the war. Surely it wasn't the only responsible party, but Germany's actions were the ones that led to the war. The truth is that once the war was ending, all the responsibility for its beginning fell on Germany, and this was reflected in writing in Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (1919). This was the first peace... Continue reading "Causes of World War I: Was Germany to Blame?" »

The Germania Revolt (1519-1523)

Between 1519 and 1523, significant unrest occurred, notably the Germania Revolt, which also affected Mallorca and Valencia. The reasons were similar to other contemporary uprisings, but these revolts were led by the Germanías (guilds) who confronted both the king and the nobility. The leaders of the revolt were severely repressed.

Organization of Charles V's Empire

The empire of Charles V comprised many diverse territories, each possessing its own laws and institutions. Charles V did not wield absolute power; crucial decisions required the approval of the Parliaments within each kingdom.

The royal court was itinerant, moving between locations. Each territory was managed by a viceroy or governor who ruled in the... Continue reading "Charles V's Empire: Germania Revolt & European Conflicts" »

Preparing for the First Voyage

After receiving Queen Isabella's support, Columbus went to Huelva to organize the expedition with the help of Franciscan monks in the Friary of La Rábida. The Pinzóns, a family of ship owners, helped Columbus organize a fleet of 105 sailors and three ships: a carrack (the Santa María) and two caravels (the Pinta and the Niña).

The First Expedition to the Unknown

The 1492 Journey

The expedition left the port of Palos (Huelva) on 3 August 1492. On 12 October 1492, they arrived on Guanahani Island in the Bahamas, which Columbus named San Salvador.

In the following weeks, they explored Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic) and Cuba, and they began their return journey in January 1493.

The Later Expeditions

• Second