Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Ancient Greece: Core Characteristics

Political Structure

The Greek world was never politically unified. City-states (c/s) maintained their own governments and fiercely defended their independence, leading to endless rivalry and frequent wars.

Forms of Government

• Monarchy: Government where a king exercises central power.
• Aristocracy: Government ruled by noble leaders who were elected. Initially, the power of the king shifted to the noble class, who defended the king but eventually won power themselves.
• Oligarchy: Government ruled by a small, powerful elite. This group challenged landowning nobles for power and came to dominate the city-states.

Economy, Religion, and Society

• Economy: Based primarily on settlers and traders.
• Religion: Polytheistic, centered

Key Terms of the French Revolution Era

The Enlightenment and Society

The Enlightenment: An eighteenth-century intellectual movement, led by the philosophes, that stressed the application of reason and the scientific method to question the accepted order of society, politics, and religion.

Secular: Not religious.

Scientific Method: A method of seeking knowledge using experiments and observations to develop generalizations.

Philosophes: Intellectuals of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment who believed in applying a spirit of rational criticism to all things, including religion and politics.

Separation of Powers: A doctrine enunciated by Montesquieu in the eighteenth century that separate executive, legislative, and judicial powers serve to limit and... Continue reading "Key Terms of the French Revolution Era: 18th Century" »

1.Fighting World War II

In the mid-1930s, it became clear that peace wouldn’t last For long. Japan invaded China, and in Europe, the raising of Nazi Germany under Adolph Hitler’s run posed a growing threat. Roosevelt had no choice other than Following the policy of “appeasement”, in hopes that agreeing to Hitler’s Demands would prevent war.When war broke out in Europe in 1939, Roosevelt reconsidered Entering the conflict, but the American citizens still opposed. In 1940, Congress agreed to allow the sale of arms to Britain. Opponents of involvement In Europe created the America First Committee, that included well-known figures Like Henry Ford and Charles A. Lindbergh. In 1940, Roosevelt won the elections and was the first President... Continue reading "Engines" »

Historical Sociology or Comparative History

Historical sociologists are interested in how modernization takes place. It's not the level of modernization that matters, but how it is achieved. They focus on class structure because they believe that the result of modernization will depend on the class structure of the country and the relations between different social groups. Groups will be benefited in different ways, so they analyze which social groups were more affected and benefited by democracy.

Barrington Moore and the Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy

Barrington Moore was the founder of this school and wrote the influential book Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World in 1966.... Continue reading "Modernization & Social Class: A Comparative Historical Analysis" »

Impact of Enlightenment and American Revolution

The **Declaration of Independence of the USA** and its **Constitution (1787)** championed the inalienable rights of citizens and the separation of powers. Enlightenment principles and the **American Revolution** provided the bourgeoisie with new ideas to confront absolutism and the stratified social system.

Social and Economic Crisis

The crisis had two main facets:

• Economic Crisis: Resulting from a series of poor harvests since **1760**. The rise in food prices generated a spirit of rebellion among the people.
• Financial Crisis: Caused by the monarchy's severe lack of money.

1789: Rebellion Erupts

The **Estates-General** met in **Versailles** in **May 1789**. This meeting was chaired by the King and comprised... Continue reading "Transforming Europe: The French Revolution's Legacy" »

The Enlightenment: Ideas and Impact

The Enlightenment was based on Sapere Aude (Latin for "Dare to Know"), a call for individuals to use their own reason and understanding.

Key Enlightenment Thinkers

• Montesquieu
• Voltaire
• Rousseau
• John Locke (in England)

Core Enlightenment Ideas

• National Sovereignty: Power resides with the people.
• Division of Powers:
  • Legislative: Makes laws.
  • Executive: Governs and enforces laws.
  • Judicial: Interprets laws and administers justice.
• Equality of Citizens: All men are born free and equal.

Enlightened Despotism in Europe

Some monarchs in Europe adopted new Enlightenment ideas into their governments. However, they retained absolute power, caring for the welfare of their people but without their direct participation. Their motto was:... Continue reading "Enlightenment to Revolution: Shaping Modern Europe" »

Key Events & Figures of the French Revolution

The Storming of the Bastille

The storming of the Bastille represents the revolution, the end of the Ancien Régime, and the beginning of the French Revolution. The people (representing the 98% of the population) rose against the king's power, provoking a huge social movement in France. The Bastille, the king's prison, symbolized royal power. This event occurred on July 14, 1789, and its impact is still felt today, as the French celebrate their National Holiday every year on this date.

The Tennis Court Oath

This event, which took place on June 20, 1789, during the French Revolution, symbolizes freedom, equality, and fraternity. It represents an inverted social pyramid where the people (98%) have... Continue reading "Understanding the French Revolution: Key Moments and Influential People" »

Causes

• The Treaty of Versailles signed: Germany was obliged to reduce military, pay reparations, and renounce territories.
• Hitler writes 'Mein Kampf': Aims to make Germany great again and plan for the Jews.
• The Global Depression begins: Mode dictators come to power.
• Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany democratically.
• Hitler begins to rebuild his army in secret.
• Abyssinia Invasion: Mussolini invades Abyssinia, leading to the League of Nations' downfall.
• Rhineland reoccupied.
• The Spanish Civil War: Germany rehearses arms and aircraft.
• Rome Berlin Axis: Hitler Mussolini Alliance.
• Anschluss with Austria: Annexation of Austria into Germany.
• The Munich Agreement: Sudetenland returned to Germany.
• 1939 Nazis invade Czechoslovakia, breaking the Munich Agreement.

Stalinism in the USSR (1924-1953)

Stalinism defined a totalitarian government system in the Soviet Union from 1924 to 1953, with Joseph Stalin as its paramount political leader.

Key Characteristics of Stalinism

Stalin's Absolute Political Power

• Gained control of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) as Secretary General.
• Served as the head of the government.
• Approved the Constitution of 1936, which established rights and universal suffrage.
• Maintained the CPSU as the sole political party.
• Utilized propaganda and repression to enforce his dictatorship.
• Aimed to spread communism across Europe through the Comintern.

State Control of the Economy

• Land and factories became state property.
• Stalin introduced the Five-Year Plans, which included:
  • Collectivization