Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

**Political Organization and Institutions in the Late Middle Ages**

**Kingdom of Castile**

The King enjoyed extensive powers. The Royal Chancery was a still-developing institution. Key features included the royal estate and the courts, which were called by the King to vote on subsidies. Municipalities had a mayor as the representative of royal power. The *merindades* (counties) were replaced by *adelantamientos*, headed by *Merinos mayores*. Clashes between nobles and monarchs were exacerbated during the reign of Pedro I "the Cruel," who was murdered in Montiel (1369) by his brother, Henry II of Trastámara. Henry II sought to strengthen royal power through centralizing initiatives: reducing the power of the courts, establishing the Hearing and...

The Spanish War of Independence: The Events of Bayonne

The political situation in Spain in March 1808 was unprecedented. Ferdinand VII managed to dethrone his father, Charles IV, in the **Riot of Aranjuez**. Napoleon became the arbiter of the dispute at **Bayonne**. Attracted there, Charles IV and Ferdinand VII ceded the right to the Spanish crown to Napoleon, who subsequently gave it to his brother, **Joseph I**. Napoleon approved the **Statute of Bayonne** (or *Letter of Bayonne*) in 1808.

The Conduct of the War (1808-1814)

Napoleon, while at Bayonne, considered the Spanish problem solved. However, on **2 May**, the people of Madrid rebelled. The French authorities shot the prisoners the following day, provoking general indignation. Popular...

The Forms of Territorial Occupation and Its Influence on the Structure of Property

Models of Repopulation and Social Organization

The monarchs favored the repopulation of reconquered Christian territory with different systems:

• Concejil Repopulation: Used between the Duero and Tagus rivers and the Ebro valley. The territory was divided into municipalities consisting of a walled town and a municipal land (administrative district). Settlers received a house and land. The council collected the forum, which outlined the duties and rights of villagers.
• Military Orders: In the lands between the Tagus and the Sierra Morena, which were dangerous and sparsely populated, recruitment was entrusted to military orders. They received extensive lordships, called

Trench Warfare

Trench warfare describes combat based on defense by both contenders in fixed positions, consisting of lines of trenches dug into the ground for troops to parapet within them.

War Reparations

War reparations are compensation for damage caused by war. The defeated party must satisfy the victor under clauses in the peace treaties.

War Economy

A war economy is a set of restrictions and economic measures designed to meet the civil and military requirements of a country in wartime, so it can continue the struggle. Characteristic measures of a war economy are rationing and the use of women in the workforce.

Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh territorial, political, and economic conditions on Germany.

Battles of Verdun

Causes of the Costa Rican Civil War in 1948

• The difficult economic situation facing the country due to the closure of European markets to exports of coffee and bananas.
• Direct government intervention in electoral matters.
• Nepotism of the rulers, favoring relatives in key government positions.
• The sit-down strike.
• Annulment of the 1948 elections by Congress.

Impact of World War II on Costa Rica

Social Impact

Most of the population was employed. However, a large sector lived in poverty due to a lack of housing and low wages.

Economic Impact

The economy depended primarily on the production and export of coffee and bananas. Cocoa and mining were in decline, while urban centers developed commerce and industry, although the labor bill was less significant....

A Brief History of Asturias

16th-17th Century: The Arbitrators

In seventeenth-century Spain, a group of 16 ARBITRATOR thinkers emerged, proposing various policies and means to solve the problems of the Spanish economy.

18th Century: Audiencia de Asturias

After the War of Succession (1702-1713), the Audiencia de Asturias was established in 1719. This resulted in municipalities losing their autonomy, despite their aspirations to the throne and their defense of the new king, Philip V.

18th-19th Century: Illustrated Asturians

Notable figures who contributed to the central government include:

• Jose Campillo y Cossio (1693-1743): Published treatises on economics and public administration.
• Feijoo (1676-1764): Known for his criticism of traditional culture'

World War II (1939-1945)

1. Causes of World War II

1.1 Expansionist Policies of Nazi Germany

Following Hitler's rise to power, Germany left the League of Nations in 1933, signaling its rejection of the international order. This mirrored Japan's actions after its 1931 attack on China, which drew condemnation from the League. Italy followed suit in 1935 after being censured for its invasion of Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Nazi Germany aimed to establish a vast Reich, imposing its vision of Lebensraum (living space) on Europe. In early 1935, Germany annexed the Saarland following a plebiscite. It promoted rearmament, established compulsory military service, created an air force, and remilitarized the Rhineland in March 1936, all in violation of the Treaty...

History of the European Union

Post-War Cooperation and Early Treaties

In December 1947, during the Cold War, initial steps toward European integration were taken. A series of partnerships culminated in the Congress of Europe in May 1948, which advocated for political and economic union, a consultative assembly, and a European court of human rights. In January 1949, the United Kingdom, France, and the Benelux countries formed a union, establishing the Council of Europe.

On October 23, 1957, the Western European Union was created in Paris by the Benelux countries, France, Italy, and West Germany. Its goal was to coordinate economic, cultural, and military policy.

Forms of Economic Integration

• Free Trade Area: Complete elimination of tariff and

Spain's Gradual International Reintegration

In foreign policy, these agreements did not imply that the U.S. aimed for a standardized procedure. Thus, Spain's entry into the UN was not coincidental; it was dictated by the U.S. interest in bringing countries into its orbit, in the face of the USSR. Spain remained outside the Western integration processes (future EU and NATO).

Withdrawal of UN Sanctions

In November 1950, UN Resolution 46 withdrew diplomatic sanctions against Spain, influenced by South American and Arab countries.

Spain Joins International Organizations

Spain began to join UN agencies:

• First, the International Meteorological Organization.
• Then, the FAO (April 1951), WHO, and ITU (International Telecommunication Union, May 1951).
• UNESCO

**The October Revolution of 1917**

The Days of October

Kerensky sought to carry out the conversion of the Tsarist state into a parliamentary republic. For that purpose, a meeting of the board called the Republic was held to take over the situation until the opening of a new assembly. Trotsky became the center of opposition to the Republican regime. On October 25th, the sea rose following Lenin's call. Soon, groups of armed workers joined and managed to take key locations.

The Construction of the Soviet State

The revolution was finally consummated by the rapid action of the armed masses and the support of the Soviets, Bolsheviks, and Mensheviks. Lenin then became the undisputed leader, although within the Bolshevik Party, problems persisted on the...