Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Scientific Revolution (1500-1700)

The Scientific Revolution marked a major shift in thinking between 1500 and 1700, establishing modern science as a new way to gain knowledge about the natural world.

Key Concepts and Figures

Geocentric Theory

The theory placing Earth at the center of the universe.

Heliocentric Theory

The theory placing the Sun at the center of the universe.

Galileo Galilei

An Italian astronomer and mathematician who built his own telescope, observed four moons revolving around Jupiter, and provided crucial support for the heliocentric theory.

Scientific Method

A systematic method of procedure involving observation, measurement, experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses, which has characterized natural science

Pre-Columbian America and the Age of Discovery:

How did early humans get to what is now North, Central, and South America? The Three Sisters, Tenochtitlan. For what major reasons did the 'Age of Discovery' take place in the 15th century? Maya, Aztec (Mexica), Inca, Animism, Christopher Columbus, Ferdinand Magellan, Conquistadors. What factors increased the Conquistador's success in 'conquering' early civilizations? The 3 G's, La Maliche. How were the English Different? Roanoke - settler demographics.

- What happened? Sir Walter Raleigh, Virginia Dare, John White. Which European nation had the worst reputation for their treatment of the Indigenous populations of Central and South America? Impact of other European colonization in the Americas (... Continue reading "Pre-Columbian America, Age of Discovery, and Colonial America" »

Bizkaiko langileei: 12th text commentary

This document is a first level text, in which the target reader can be any citizen. Although it is not known who the author is exactly, we know it was written by the workers of the mining district. We can also deduce it was written by a socialist because it was published in La Lucha de Clases. It was written in 1st May 1896. The content is political and socioeconomic. The text is about the demands of workers.

This text was written during the Restoration level. The system was conservative and two dynastic parties took the power in turns using rigging elections. On the one hand it was a specially delicate moment, because not only was the situation of the country bad, but they were also starting to have problems... Continue reading "Bizkaiko Langileei: 12th Text Commentary and Demands" »

Key Concepts in Medieval European History

Conquests and Conflicts

The Moors and Islamic Iberia

What did the Spanish call the Muslims who conquered most of Spain during the 8th century?

The Spanish called them the Moors.

In which year did the Muslim forces of Arabs and Berbers from North Africa conquer Spain?

The conquest occurred in 711.

What was another name for Islamic Iberia or Muslim Spain?

Another name was Al-Andalus.

In what year did the Spanish forces capture the city of Granada, ending the Reconquista?

The Reconquista ended in 1492.

The Norman Conquest of England

Who crossed the English Channel in October 1066, conquering England at the Battle of Hastings?

William, Duke of Normandy.

Which people introduced French words into the English language by... Continue reading "Medieval History Facts: Feudalism, Conquests, and Chivalry" »

Absolutism in Europe: The Rise of Authoritarian Monarchies

Beginning in the late 15th century, European monarchs began consolidating power, gradually wresting it from traditional sources of authority like the nobility, the Church, and city-states. This trend, known as the rise of authoritarian monarchies, continued throughout the 16th century.

The 17th Century: The Zenith of Absolute Rule

The 17th century witnessed the culmination of this power shift, with monarchs reaching the pinnacle of their authority. This period marked the emergence of absolutism, a political system where the king embodied the ultimate source and wielder of all political power.

Philosophical Justifications for Absolute Power

Several prominent thinkers sought to legitimize... Continue reading "Absolutism in Europe: From Authoritarian Monarchies to the Divine Right of Kings" »

Key Terms of the Russian Revolution and Soviet History

Bolsheviks

A faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party that split from the Mensheviks in 1903. Led by Lenin, they seized power during the October Revolution (1917) and later became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.

Mensheviks

A faction of the Social Democratic Party that emerged in 1903 following a dispute with the Bolsheviks. Led by Martov, the name "Menshevik" translates to "minority."

October Manifesto

A document issued by Tsar Nicholas II in October 1905 in response to the 1905 Revolution. It included the creation of a Duma (parliament) and the introduction of universal male suffrage.

Okhrana

The secret police force of the Russian Empire.

Red Army

The military force created... Continue reading "Essential Concepts of the Soviet Era Defined" »

The Crisis of 1973 and Its Consequences

In 1973, an economic crisis began that affected many countries.

Who?

The OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries), an organization to which several Arab countries belonged.

Why?

An attempt to pressure Western countries to convince Israel to abandon the Palestinian territories that had been occupied since the Yom Kippur War (1973).

What?

An embargo on the sale of oil. The price of oil tripled in Western countries and affected all sectors of production. The lack of crude oil led to an economic collapse.

Main Consequences:

• The uncontrolled rise of prices (inflation) caused by the increase in the price of oil.
• Reduction of demand.
• Many businesses had to close and unemployment grew.

Measures to Solve the Crisis

Some... Continue reading "The Crisis of 1973 and the Fall of Communism" »

Truman Doctrine

The Truman Doctrine was an American foreign policy whose stated purpose was to counter Soviet geopolitical expansion during the Cold War. It was announced to Congress by President Harry S. Truman on March 12, 1947, and further developed on July 12, 1948, when he pledged to contain threats in Greece and Turkey. Direct American military force was usually not involved, but Congress appropriated financial aid to support the economies and militaries of Greece and Turkey. More generally, the Truman Doctrine implied American support for other nations allegedly threatened by Soviet communism. The Truman Doctrine became the foundation of American foreign policy, and led, in 1949, to the formation of NATO, a military alliance that is still... Continue reading "Cold War Foreign Policies: Truman Doctrine, Deterrence, and Domino Theory" »

First Period of Francoism (1939-1959)

Political Isolation and Repression

• Politics: During the first years (until 1945), there was a strong relationship with the Axis powers: Italy and Germany.
• After WWII, Spain was isolated. The UN declared Spain a totalitarian regime.
• There was only one political party: Falange Española y de las JONS.
• The era was marked by strong repression.
• Opposition remained hidden in the mountains, known as the Maquis.

Economic Autarchy and the Black Market

• Economy: The system of Autarchy meant Spain was isolated economically, which meant that it could not export or import any products.
• The primary sector was the most important. Except for Catalonia and the Basque Country, other regions earned their living through agriculture,