Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

As soon as there was resistance from the Republic, it had a social base on which it was sustained. The power of the Union and Progress, led by General Serrano, attempted to stabilize a conservative republic. However, the social base had opted for the Alfonsina solution: the return of a new model of liberalism with an endemic precedent. This included the partisan and exclusionary nature of moderate military interventionism in politics and the proliferation of civil strife. There were two objectives: to develop a constitution that structured a bipartisan political system and to pacify the country by ending the war in Cuba and the Carlist conflict.

The first policy measure was the convening of elections for a Constituent Assembly, as the constitution...

The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)

The Second Spanish Republic, established in 1931, implemented numerous reforms but struggled to solidify its position as an alternative to the Restoration's political system. The victory of the left-wing Popular Front in February 1936 led to an acceleration of reforms initiated during the previous reformist period. However, this move faced staunch opposition from the right, who were determined to prevent a military coup. On July 17th, Generals Mola, Franco, Fanjul, and others initiated an uprising in Morocco, which spread to the Peninsula the following day. The coup succeeded in less than half of Spain but failed in major cities and industrial centers, triggering a devastating civil war that lasted nearly three...

The Military Uprising and the Path to War

The military uprising was supported by a heterogeneous group of conservative military personnel, most notably the Africanistas. The failure of the uprising, coupled with the government's response, led to a bloody civil war that lasted almost three years.

The Military Uprising of July 1936

According to General Emilio Mola, the head of the uprising, the military coup was to be carried out with extreme violence. The plan was to first declare a state of war and then proceed with the arrest and removal of major left-wing political and union leaders. The plan consisted of a series of uprisings that would seize power in their respective areas. After taking the capital, a general meeting would be held to replace...

Al-Andalus: Economy, Society, and Culture

In cities that developed thriving crafts, there was significant foreign trade, and the circulation of money was plentiful. The city of Córdoba was the economic hub and largest cultural center, and Al-Andalus became the largest city in Western Europe.

Ethnic Plurality and Cultural Splendor

The Muslim majority was divided into different ethnic groups, which were equal before the law but occupied different social positions.

• Privileged group: Jassa (those with Arab ancestry) who owned most of the domains.
• Berbers and Muladi (Hispanic converts to Islam).
• Jews.
• Mozarabs: They had a heavier tax burden and were Hispanic Christians.

This created an extensive network of schools and universities, and scientific development...

The Visigothic Kingdom in Hispania (c. 409–711)

Establishment and Early History

409: Various barbarian peoples entered Spain. To manage this, Rome permitted the Visigoths, already settled in southern Gaul (Kingdom of Toulouse), to control lands in Hispania.

416–476: The Visigoths effectively ended the presence of Alans and Vandals in the peninsula and suppressed internal revolts.

476: With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Visigoths achieved full independence.

507: After losing the Battle of Vouillé against the Franks, the Visigoths retreated from Gaul and fully settled in Hispania, establishing an independent kingdom with its capital in Toledo.

Kingdom Consolidation

The Visigothic monarchy aimed to establish its kingdom based on territorial,

The War of Independence and its Aftermath

Pro-French: Spaniards who recognized Joseph Bonaparte as king.

Fernandina: Spaniards who remained loyal to Ferdinand VII.

Guerrillas: Armed civilians who harassed Napoleon's army and hindered its control of territory.

The War of Independence began on 2 May 1808.

The royal family was not able to organize the fight together, which is why a board was organized to create a supreme central government.

Political Instability and the Reign of Ferdinand VII

Pronunciamiento: A typical military uprising of the nineteenth century aimed at changing a particular political system.

Holy Alliance: An alliance of several European kings to deal with liberal governments.

The reign of Ferdinand VII, after his return to Spain, restored...

Tragic Week: Barcelona's 1909 Uprising

Background

Five years after the loss of its colonies in Cuba, Spain embarked on a new colonial campaign in Morocco. The war effort recruited young men of working age, many from already struggling families. On July 24, 1909, a revolutionary strike committee was formed, representing socialists, anarchists, and Lerrouxists. The lower classes were turning to violence against the Catalan language, Catalan bourgeoisie, and the Church, whom they blamed for the suffering of the workers.

The Uprising and its Suppression

What was intended to be a revolutionary strike turned into an urban uprising. That same night, the first religious buildings were set on fire. The bodies of religious figures were exhumed from their...

19th Century European Political Transformations

Revolutions of 1820 and 1830

During the Restoration period, liberals went underground, organizing into secret societies. The Masons were the largest of these groups. These organizations, comprising businessmen, students, intellectuals, and professionals, saw themselves as heirs to the Enlightenment and the French Revolution, advocating for revolt against absolutism. Their influence was primarily concentrated in cities, where they hoped the populace would join the uprising once initiated.

Initial triumphs in Spain, Portugal, Naples, and Piedmont ushered in a brief liberal period, which was subsequently suppressed by absolutist forces. The repression was severe: many liberals were arrested or executed,...

Decline of Spanish Empire in Europe

Foreign Policy: Philip III signed a peace treaty with England (1604) and the 12-year truce with Holland (1609-1621). With Philip IV, the peace was broken due to the German conflict. At the end of the 12-year truce, fighting resumed in the Hispanic Netherlands, with Austria and Spain against Protestant Germany and Holland. The Thirty Years' War ended with the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which permanently ceded independence to the United Provinces. Spain fought against France until the Peace of the Pyrenees (1659), which involved the transfer of Roussillon, Sardinia, and Artois. Under Charles II, the independence of Portugal was recognized. There was peace in Aachen (1668), the French invasion of the Low Countries...

Primo de Rivera's Manifesto: A Historical Analysis

The Primo Manifesto is a historical-political text drafted by General Miguel Primo de Rivera, published in the newspaper ABC. This monarchist text emerged in the early twentieth century, amidst strong political commotion caused by the Disaster of '98, which forced the dynastic parties to launch a reformist agenda.

Context and Background

While the political system was being reformed, Spanish society entered a progressive stage of economic development and social modernization. The impact of the First World War, especially its economic growth, along with dynastic divisions between the courts and governments, the exacerbation of social tensions, and the difficulties of warfare in Morocco, served as...