Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Turn of the Century World Economy

Germany led European industrial production, powered by its robust iron and steel industry, utilizing advancements like the Bessemer converter. The United States industrialized rapidly in the latter half of the 19th century, fueled by European immigration which expanded its workforce.

Imperialism

Definition: During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, developed nations seized control of regions worldwide, establishing colonies and expanding empires.

The Colonial Empires

The British Empire, the largest, encompassed colonies across North America, Asia, Africa, and Oceania, notably India and Australia. The French empire, though smaller, held colonies in Africa and Asia.

Causes of Imperial Expansion

The primary...

Causes of Imperialism

Economic Rivalry

Competition between countries for lands increased military expenditure.

Political Rivalry

New powers (USA and France), alliances, Balkans conflict.

Colonialism

• Industrial development = demographic growth - life improves
• Strategic moves
• Developed countries compete for dominance = suspicion between powers

Congress of Berlin

USA, Germany, Japan VS England

Portugal, Belgium, Italy: interested in African colonies (raw materials)

German Otto von Bismarck distributed Africa.

Consequences of Colonialism

For the Colonies

• No industrialization
• Land exploitation
• Imposition of conquering power
• Destruction of ethnic structures
• Artificial borders

For the Empires

• Development of industrialization
• Strategic moves
• Arms race
• Suspicion between powers
• Prestige
• Introduced

Medieval Society

Society was divided into privileged and non-privileged estates:

• Privileged Estates: Nobility and clergy. Members were subject to different laws than the rest.
• Non-privileged Estates: People who weren't members of the clergy or nobility. Most were peasants, but there were also craftsmen, traders, etc.

Nobility

Nobles were dedicated to fighting wars.

• Higher Nobility: Consisted of dukes, marquises, counts, etc. They were vassals of the king and lords of other vassals of lower rank. They lived in castles, collected taxes, and administered justice in their fiefs.

Clergy

There were two different groups of clergy:

• Secular Clergy: Priests that depended on a bishop.
• Regular Clergy: Members of a religious order who lived in a monastery.

• Higher

Types of Complements

• Direct Object (DO)
• Indirect Object (IO)
• Demoted Object
• Subject Complement
• Object Complement
• Predicator Complement
• Prepositional Object (cannot be an object complement because it is introduced by a preposition)

Predicator complements do not admit a passive. Verbs taking obligatory directional complements include creep and slip. Relational verbs include have and possess. Verbs of measure include measure and cost. Verbs of equal reciprocity include marry and resemble.

Realization of Complements

• Noun Phrase: Smoke means fire.
• Prepositional Phrase: This job calls for great initiative.
• Finite Clause: To draw on whatever resources it can.
• Non-finite Clause: I can't help thinking he must be crazy.

Realization of the Adjunct

• Prepositional Phrase:

Main Features of the Nazi Regime

The Nazi regime was a totalitarian dictatorship. Adolf Hitler dissolved all political parties and unions and closed the Parliament. Elections and individual liberties were abolished. Systematic persecution of political opponents began. The Nazi Party was the only authorized political party, and the National Labor Front was the only permitted union.

Public administration was purged through a law authorizing dismissal for political and racial reasons. The judiciary lost its independence and became subject to the will of the party. Local authorities in the different states were removed and their powers transferred to the Reich. The Nazi state sought total cohesion of German society, based on the supposed superiority...

Arabic Science in the Middle Ages: Advancements and Influence

Introduction

The Middle Ages began with the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 at the hands of the barbarians and lasted for 1000 years, from the 5th to the 15th century. It is often called the Dark Ages due to a perceived decline in scientific knowledge. However, this decline began earlier in Alexandria when the city became a Roman province and scientific pursuits were no longer prioritized. The decline of Alexandrian science was marked by four factors:

1. Scientific-Theoretical Cause: Science itself was limited by its methodology, requiring a new approach to enable further research.
2. Rome: The Roman Empire was preoccupied with practical interests of conquest and governance, showing little

Franco's Spain: The Dictatorship (1939-1975)

Opposition to Franco's regime faced significant challenges. Internal dissent was minimal due to purges, imprisonment, or exile. The most organized opposition came from the PCE (Spanish Communist Party), which gained some traction among workers by organizing factory workers' committees. Neighborhood associations provided the only real avenue for political activity within the confines of the regime.

Stages of the Franco Regime

1939-1950: Autarky

In the aftermath of the Spanish Civil War, the government solidified its authoritarian rule and initially aligned with the fascist Axis powers. However, by 1942, its orientation began to shift. The postwar years were marked by widespread hunger. Economic hardship,...

Maura's Conservative Government (1907-1909)

The government led by Antonio Maura aimed for a 'revolution from above,' seeking to regenerate the political system with the support of the 'neutral masses.' Maura intended to establish a strong state, curb the power of old political bosses (caciques), and prevent the excessive influence of the wealthy classes.

• Electoral Reform (1907): While not eliminating corruption, it made electoral fraud more difficult.
• Social Policy Initiatives: Creation of the National Insurance Institute and the Sunday Rest Law.
• Executive Independence: Sought greater independence from the Crown.
• Catalan Integration: Attempted to integrate Catalan reformists by granting more autonomy to local governments and recognizing regions

The French War (1808-1814)

These events led to the popular rebellion, and on 2 May 1808, there was an uprising in Madrid against the French troops. This example was followed in many other places. Boards were created to lead the resistance, coordinated by a Board of Supreme Central, while patriotic groups organized into guerrillas to fight the French.

Las Cortes de Cadiz

The abdications in Bayonne left a power vacuum, because King Joseph I never gained acceptance from the Spanish people. So, in 1810, the Central Board convened a meeting of parliament in the city of Cadiz, the only territory not occupied by the French. The first decision by the Parliament was revolutionary: all present, whatever their origin, gathered in a single House and their...