Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Popular Front in Spain: A Pre-Civil War Coalition

This document outlines the program of the Popular Front, a significant coalition formed between Republican and Socialist parties in Spain. Constituted just one month before the pivotal 1936 elections, this left-wing alliance united against a common enemy: the rising threat of fascism. Authored by a collective of representatives from both Republican and Socialist parties, this text serves as a primary source document, offering a historical perspective on a critical period.

Historical Context: The Second Spanish Republic (1931-1936)

Proclamation of the Republic and Early Instability (1931-1933)

In 1931, the results of municipal elections led to the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic in...

1. The Rise of Neoclassicism

After the French Revolution in 1789, Europe was overtaken by liberal and national movements. What architectural movement was in style at that time that highlighted the use of Greek and Roman forms without overt ornamentation?

c. Neo-Classical

2. Innovations in Reinforced Concrete

In Europe, there were great technical developments in reinforced concrete construction as advanced by Joseph Monier in 1877. Who was the man that substituted steel for iron in reinforced concrete construction and developed the hooked connections for reinforcing bars?

c. Francois Hennebique

3. Principles of Traditional Town Design

Which of the following statements is true about traditional town design?

a. There is a variety of dwelling types within...

The Birth of the French Republic (1792-1793)

Following the insurrection of August 1792, a National Convention governed France from September 1792. This assembly, elected by all adult males, abolished the monarchy and established the French Republic. Initially, the Girondins, or moderate republicans, held control.

The Convention condemned Louis XVI for treason, leading to his execution by guillotine in January 1793. This event sparked international outrage and the formation of the First Coalition, with Britain and the Dutch Republic joining forces against France.

The Reign of Terror (1793-1794)

With the revolution facing threats, the radical Jacobins, supported by the sans-culottes, seized power from the Girondins in June 1793. Jacobin leader Maximilien...

The Impact of the Penal Laws

Another negative aspect was the imposition of the so-called Penal Laws, which were a series of laws imposed in an attempt to force Irish Catholics to accept the reformed denomination as defined by the Anglican Church. Many Catholics were persecuted. Another aspect imposed had to do with the distribution of the land: Puritans could give the whole land to their descendants. However, Catholics had to divide it, so the value of the land diminished, and this worsened over generations. Oliver Cromwell imposed these laws because during the First Civil War the King counted on the help of Catholics, so it was like revenge.

1653 – 1658: The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell

During this period, Oliver Cromwell took full control...

Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi

Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi (19 November 1917 – 31 October 1984) was an Indian politician and central figure of the Indian National Congress party, and to date the only female Prime Minister of India. Indira Gandhi was the daughter of India's first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru. Despite her surname Gandhi, she is not related to the family of independence leader Mahatma Gandhi. She served as Prime Minister from 1966 to 1977 and then again from 1980 until her assassination in 1984, making her the second-longest-serving Prime Minister of India after her father. Indira Gandhi was the first woman prime minister of India.

Early Political Career

Gandhi served as her father's personal assistant and hostess during his tenure...

Key European Alliances (1879-1914)

• 1879 – Dual Alliance

  Germany and Austria-Hungary formed this alliance to protect themselves from Russia.

• 1882 – Triple Alliance

  Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy formed this alliance to prevent Italy from aligning with Russia.

• 1894 – Franco-Russian Alliance

  Russia and France allied to protect against Germany and Austria-Hungary.

• 1904 – The Entente Cordiale

  An agreement between Britain and France, recognizing colonial possessions and reducing tensions.

• 1907 – The Anglo-Russian Entente

  An agreement between Britain and Russia regarding spheres of influence in Asia.

• 1907 – The Triple Entente

  Formed by the previous agreements, uniting France, Britain, and Russia.

• 1914 – The Triple Entente Agreement

  Members agreed

Argentina

Economic Growth (Late 19th - Early 20th Century)

Argentina's economic growth during this period hinged on three factors:

• A booming European market for Argentine products
• An influx of immigrants providing cheap labor
• Significant foreign investment capital

Both rich and poor relied on the export economy, though its benefits were unevenly distributed. Notably, male employers favored women workers, perceiving them as cheaper, more reliable, efficient, and docile than their male counterparts. Despite Argentina's vast land being its greatest asset, ownership was concentrated in the hands of a few.

Society

Argentine society was stratified into three classes:

• Upper Class: Held a monopoly on land ownership and political control.
• Middle Class: Dominated

The Death of General Wolfe

The Death of General Wolfe, a renowned 1770 painting by Anglo-American artist Benjamin West, depicts the death of British General James Wolfe during the 1759 Battle of Quebec in the Seven Years' War. This Neoclassical oil on canvas painting has a nearly identical replica, commissioned by King George III in 1771.

West portrays General Wolfe as a Christ-like figure. The painting's triangular composition, formed by the flag's apex and the men's positions, evokes Michelangelo's La Pietà, where the Virgin Mary embraces Christ.

In the foreground, Wolfe's musket, cartridge box, and bayonet lie on the ground. Wolfe, armed like his men, wears a simple red coat, waistcoat, breeches, and a white shirt—unusually modest attire...

The Crisis of 1973 and Its Consequences

In 1973, an economic crisis began that affected many countries.

Who?

The OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries), an organization to which several Arab countries belonged.

Why?

An attempt to pressure Western countries to convince Israel to abandon the Palestinian territories that had been occupied since the Yom Kippur War (1973).

What?

An embargo on the sale of oil. The price of oil tripled in Western countries and affected all sectors of production. The lack of crude oil led to an economic collapse.

Main Consequences:

• The uncontrolled rise of prices (inflation) caused by the increase in the price of oil.
• Reduction of demand.
• Many businesses had to close and unemployment grew.

Measures to Solve the Crisis

Some...

Causes of Colonialism

Demography

• Population growth (Emigration; America, Africa, Australia).
• Economy

Economic

• Search for new markets: to get raw materials/to sell manufactured products.
• Thanks to the transport revolution (steam ships).

Politics

• Developed countries looked for dominance (expansionist policies).

The Berlin Conference

Before 1885, one powerful country could occupy new territory and simply say "this belongs to us now!".

After 1884, countries had to agree to the principle of "effective occupation". This meant that they had to administer the country, not just possess it. Africa was divided up mainly between Great Britain and France. This was supposed to reduce the possibilities of conflict over colonial territories. Holding the conference in...