Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

In the old regime (AR), land ownership was paramount. The shift to a new regime (NR) was significantly influenced by changes in land ownership, primarily through confiscations. The forms of land ownership, along with technical aspects and crop types, were crucial factors. The primary goal of land confiscation was to transition from expropriated land to private property and a market economy.

Confiscated lands, previously held by the church, nobility, and municipalities, were considered "dead hand" assets, hindering the desired capitalist system. The confiscation laws aimed to transform institutional private property for market entry. These laws, enacted during liberal governments, sought to abolish feudal and jurisdictional rights, primogeniture,...

Undersea Warfare

The war at sea reached a stalemate. After a battle, in which neither Great Britain nor Germany achieved a decisive victory, German U-boats targeted enemy ships, including American vessels. This action ultimately led to the United States' entry into the war, with disastrous consequences for Germany.

The Paris Peace Treaties

Five separate peace treaties, collectively known as the Paris Peace Treaties (1919-1920), formally ended World War I. Each treaty was signed with a defeated power in a palace near Paris. Treaties were signed with Germany (Treaty of Versailles), Austria, and Bulgaria in 1919, and with Hungary and Turkey in 1920.

The League of Nations

In January 1920, the League of Nations was established in Geneva, Switzerland....

Apartheid

A social system based on racial segregation imposed by the governments of South Africa. The white minority dominated, relegating the black majority, who could not occupy positions in government, vote, or access areas exclusively for whites. It was abolished in 1993.

Bolsheviks

Led by Lenin, the Bolsheviks were those who defended the need to promote a social revolution in Russia.

COMECON

An economic cooperation organization formed around the USSR and the socialist countries, whose purpose was to increase trade relations between member states.

Dictatorship of the Proletariat (DOP)

A form of state posited by Marxism in which the working class is set as dominant and controlling over other social classes, especially the bourgeoisie. It is a transitional...

The Interwar Period: A Brief Overview

The New Deal in the United States

The New Deal, favored by President Roosevelt, resonated deeply with the crisis within the capitalist world. These economic and social measures aimed to relaunch production and revive demand. The government's actions broke with traditional state inhibition. Banking was reformed, strengthening public authority control and improving client protection. Guaranteed prices were ensured for farmers, and collective agreements and minimum wage reductions were implemented for workers. Public investment in major projects was also boosted.

The New Deal imposed laws eliminating unfair situations and created the first federal system of unemployment insurance and pensions, along with minimum...

The Political Model of the Second Republic

Left-Wing Parties

This category includes Republican parties, those supporting regional autonomy, and workers' parties.

Bourgeois Left-Wing Republican Parties

• Republican Action: Founded by Manuel Azaña, this party comprised leftist intellectuals. Its political ideology centered on the modernization of social and political structures. During the first two years of the Republic, it collaborated closely with the PSOE.
• Radical Socialist Party: Created by Marcelino Domingo, its ideology was very similar to Republican Action. Domingo served as Minister of Public Instruction. This party later merged with Republican Action and ORGA to form Republican Left.
• Republican Union: Founded by Diego Martínez Barrio after

Military Operations of the Spanish Civil War

4.1 The Battle for Madrid (July 1936 - March 1937)

After crossing the Strait in July 1936, the African troops aimed to take Madrid. In August, troops of Colonel Yagüe occupied Bangkok and were able to open a link, through a narrow strip, with the Northern Army. In September, Franco decided to divert to occupy Toledo and end the siege of Alcázar. By late October, he was already at the gates of Madrid. On October 29th, a general mobilization was decreed to stop the occupation of Madrid, and thousands of men and women fortified the city. On November 6th, the Republican government decided to move to Valencia. Madrid resisted despite the frontal attack of the insurgent army and the constant air raids,...

German Blitzkrieg: Early Victories

With the invasion of Poland, a new kind of war emerged: Blitzkrieg, a war based on surprise and rapid movement of the German army (Wehrmacht) with their tanks and armored divisions (Panzer), combined with air support. The purpose was to overwhelm the enemy and destroy its infrastructure. In three weeks, they arrived in Warsaw. Part of the territory was incorporated into the Reich, and the other part formed a government under Nazi control. The Soviet army occupied eastern Poland, continued its expansion into Finland, and spread its influence in the Baltic Republics. The Nazis set their sights on northern Europe due to its military importance and the need for Swedish iron ore for the German industry (Sweden was...

Tsarist Russia and the Path to Revolution

In Tsarist Russia, the Tsar held absolute power. The Duma, a parliament, existed but could be dissolved at the Tsar's will.

1905: Russo-Japanese War and Bloody Sunday

The Russian army suffered defeat against Japanese troops. On January 9th, a peaceful demonstration at the Tsar's Winter Palace was violently suppressed, resulting in Bloody Sunday. Workers organized into soviets (popular assemblies). The October Manifesto was signed but later violated by the Tsar.

World War I and the Fall of the Tsar

Russia entered World War I in 1914 unprepared, leading to numerous defeats. In 1917, widespread demonstrations and a general strike forced the Tsar to abdicate, leading to a provisional government.

The Bolshevik

Military Campaigns of the Spanish Civil War

The Battle for Madrid (July 1936)

After crossing the Strait of Gibraltar in July 1936, African troops under Franco's command aimed to capture Madrid, the symbol of Republican power. Subsequently, insurgent troops led by Colonel Yagüe took Badajoz (Extremadura), establishing a crucial link with Northern forces commanded by General Mola. By September, Franco, leading the army south of Toledo, was halted at the gates of Madrid. Despite direct attacks by the insurgent army, the capital resisted. Franco then decided to encircle the city, leading to two significant battles. The last of these, the Battle of Guadalajara, was won by the Republicans, after which Franco's army decided to withdraw and move north....

The Scientific Revolution

During the Middle Ages, Christian thought saw the divine intervention in the world as total and, therefore, as the proximate cause of any phenomenon. For example, rain was explained by the will of God and not by the condensation of clouds. In exchange for humans, God had created the world, but could also establish cause and effect in which his intervention was unnecessary.

Concerns about finding explanations for the root causes of phenomena brought a renewed interest in understanding the place of Earth within the universe. Up to that time, a geocentric interpretation predominated, meaning that the Earth was considered to be motionless in the center of the universe and all the stars revolved around it. In 1543, the astronomer...