Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Canova's Restoration: Oligarchy and Despotism

Political Events (1875-1898)

In 1874, an uprising led by Martinez Campos proclaimed Alfonso XII King of Spain. The then prime minister was overruled by his officers and exiled. The day after the coup, Canovas del Castillo took over as president. He had the support of Alfonso XII, as he had written the manifesto that outlined the principles of the Sandhurst Restoration. With the entry of Alfonso XII, the Bourbon dynasty was restored in Spain.

End of the Carlist Wars

The first action Cánovas took as king was dealing with the Carlist War. While heading the king offered a broad amnesty to forget the past and adhere to the constitutional monarchy.

• Ramón Cabrera (former Carlist) accepted the amnesty and

The Great Depression ruined millions of people, from banks to farmers, industries, and foreign trade. The crisis spread from the United States to the world.

Consequences of the Crisis

• Demographic: Population growth and transoceanic migrations stopped as recipient countries limited immigration to reduce internal unemployment.
• Economic: Agricultural and industrial production decreased, as did foreign trade due to protectionist policies adopted by various countries.
• Social: Unemployment grew, and the middle class and impoverished workers developed a strong rejection of the capitalist system and mistrust in progress.
• Political: The crisis discredited democracy, which initially failed to provide solutions.

To find solutions, Franklin D. Roosevelt launched...

The Primo de Rivera Dictatorship (1923-1930)

The Primo de Rivera Dictatorship began with a coup d'état in 1923, following Mussolini's accession to power in Italy. While influenced by the political climate, Primo de Rivera's dictatorship was not fascist; it emerged from the Regenerationist movement, aiming to combat the perceived ills of the Restoration era.

Support and Opposition

Initially, Primo de Rivera was well received by many segments of society. However, opposition soon emerged among students and intellectuals. Primo de Rivera also faced significant resistance from peripheral nationalisms (such as Catalan and Basque nationalism) and became increasingly repressive against their manifestations. The CNT (Confederación Nacional del Trabajo)...

The Russian Revolution

In 1917, the first worker and peasant revolution in history took place, establishing the first Marxist government.

Russia Before the Revolution

In the early twentieth century, the Russian Empire was a state in contrast to much of the world. Although it maintained feudalism, there was a Tsar, or Emperor, who held absolute power.

Russian citizens had no individual rights.

The majority of the population were peasant farmers, whose lands were part of large estates owned by a small elite.

Only 10% of the population were industrial workers.

The 1917 Revolution

February 1917: Farmers, workers, and soldiers staged a revolution, leading to the abdication of Nicholas II. Russia transitioned into a democratic republic.

Provisional Government

The Revolt of the Comuneros

The cities were discontented due to new taxes, while the nobility resented the king's appointment of foreigners to crucial government positions. The cities, known as comunidades de villa y tierra, initiated the Revolt of the Comuneros, initially gaining support from the nobles.

The rebels achieved significant success during the initial months of the revolt. However, the king later reached an agreement with the Castilian nobles, and together they confronted the rebels. The decisive battle was fought in Villalar, where the king emerged victorious. Juan de Padilla, Juan Bravo, and Francisco Maldonado, the prominent leaders of the revolt, were subsequently executed.

This revolt profoundly altered Charles V's approach to...

Early Francoism: The Autarky Period (1939–1959)

Francoism was a political system created by Francisco Franco.

It rejected democracy and was based on militarism, conservative Catholicism, and the unity of Spain. This early period of the regime lasted from 1939 to 1959.

Characteristics of the Regime

• All power was concentrated in Franco’s hands.
• He abolished the Constitution, elections, and Parliament.
• Political parties and trade unions were banned, except for the official party, the **Falange and JONS**.
• It was a highly centralized state.
• There was widespread persecution and violence against opponents of the regime.

Post-War Conditions and Autarky

After the Civil War, Spain was devastated. Approximately 1 million people died, and the country suffered...

Foundations of Modern Naval Power (1900–1941)

William Sims: The Gunnery Reformer

William Sims was a transformative figure in the U.S. Navy at the turn of the 20th century, challenging ingrained traditions and advocating for a more professional and technologically advanced force. His key contribution was his relentless push for improved gunnery practices, particularly the adoption of continuous aim firing. Prior to Sims, American naval gunnery was notoriously inaccurate, relying on slow, deliberate shots. Sims, through persistent correspondence and demonstrations, convinced the Navy leadership that faster, more accurate fire was achievable and essential. This reform dramatically increased the combat effectiveness of U.S. warships, as demonstrated...

Subjectivity, Objectivity, and Bias in History

• Objectivity

  • The goal of history.
  • But historians say that objectivity is not possible as history is based on interpretation, and hence subjectivity is bound to come.

• Bias

  • Something that is done deliberately.
  • For propaganda.
  • Vested interest, to prove something.
  • This is known as pattern writing.

• Why Subjectivity Enters Historical Writing

  • Social Animal

    • Everyone goes through the process of social interactions.
    • The personality that evolves through social interaction also lies within the historian.

  • Ideology

    • Ideas people incorporate with them.

  • Area of Research

    • When a historian chooses their area for investigation, the moment they choose it out of their own inherent interest, subjectivity obviously enters.

  • Religion

    • For example,

How Did Stalin Impose His Power?

In 1929, Stalin took control of the government and established a personal dictatorship, based on:

Cult of Personality

• Propaganda was used to depict Stalin as the "great benefactor" and "father" of the people. Any positive traits in his enemies were eliminated from public view.

Terror and Repression

• All opposition was silenced. This was enforced by a secret police force called the NKVD. The public also contributed by denouncing alleged "counter-revolutionaries".
• The most intense purges took place between 1933 and 1939. At the Moscow Trials, former party leaders were forced to confess to crimes that they had not committed.
• Thousands of people were killed or sent to concentration camps (gulags), located mainly in Siberia,

Causes of the Crisis of 1917

As Spain benefited from exporting to other countries while workers continued to receive the same wages, a crisis formed that affected several areas:

• Social Crisis: The socialist unions (UGT) and anarchist unions (CNT) called a general strike with the aim of overthrowing the political system of the Restoration.
• Military Crisis: Soldiers joined organizations called Juntas de Defensa Militar and demanded higher salaries. They also called for political changes and the continuation of the war in Morocco.
• Political Crisis: Catalans, Republicans, and Socialists met in an Assembly of Parliamentarians and tried to impose political reform. However, the assembly was dissolved by the government.

Consequences of the Crisis of 1917

The...