Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The 16th and 17th Centuries in Europe

The 16th and 17th centuries in Europe were a violent period. With the Protestant Reformation, societies were divided along religious lines. However, these conflicts were also about power, money, and land. Many Protestants (Calvinists) considered sacred images as idols and, therefore, sinful. This belief in iconoclasm caused the destruction of religious art across Europe.

The Italian Wars

The Italian Wars were a series of conflicts fought in Italy between France, Spain, and other European powers. They began when the French king Charles VIII invaded Naples in 1494 and ended when the Emperor Charles V sacked Rome in 1559.

Civil Strife in France

In France, the fighting between French Catholics and French Protestants... Continue reading "European Religious and Political Conflicts: 1500–1700" »

At the beginning of the Modern Age, sixteenth century, Spanish monarchs (Catholic Monarchs, Charles I, Philip II) wanted more and more territories, power, money ... For that, they did a series of things within the country (internal politics) and outside the country (foreign policy) to improve their wealth and gain more power. They began to conquer more and more territories. They succeeded and built the "Spanish Empire". However, by the seventeenth century, it would have gotten worse.

The foreign policy of the Catholic Monarchs (the alliances of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon) with the European Kingdom (Habsburg) for the movement policy with Portugal-England also, conquered the land in North Africa (Melilla, Algeria, and Libya).

The Post-War Era and the Cold War

After World War II, the United States played a major role on the world stage, hoping to provide the stability necessary for peaceful reconstruction. This era saw the formation of NATO (the North Atlantic Treaty Organization), a coalition of nations committed to mutual defense.

The Rise of Global Tensions

The Cold War emerged from fundamental disagreements between the USA and the Soviet Union regarding government and economic systems. Seeking to secure its borders, the Soviet Union brought communist regimes to power across Central and Eastern Europe.

In response, the U.S. sought to contain Soviet expansionism. This policy included demanding a full Soviet withdrawal from Iran, supporting Turkey, providing economic... Continue reading "Post-WWII America: Cold War, Civil Rights, and Social Change" »

Modern Art Movements and Artistic Revolutions

Impressionism and Post-Impressionism

Impressionism emerged in 1870; artists sought to capture the immediate effects of light and atmosphere in their works. They used small brushstrokes and overlapping pure colors. Claude Monet, Auguste Renoir, and Edgar Degas are the most important painters of this movement.

Post-Impressionism emerged in 1886 and revised Impressionism by creating new approaches which constitute the precedent for new avant-garde movements. They used curved and thick brushstrokes. Vincent van Gogh, Paul Cézanne, and Paul Gauguin are the most significant painters.

Fauvism, Expressionism, and Cubism

Fauvism, appearing in 1905, attached importance to drawing and used color flatly, independent... Continue reading "Modern Art Movements and Key World War II Milestones" »

Society in the Aftermath of WWI

During the war, men were conscripted or recruited into the armed forces. In European countries and their colonies, advertisements often encouraged patriotism and enlistment.

As soldiers went to war, women replaced them in many economic areas, such as offices and factories. Post-war, many women desired to continue working, but jobs were scarce. Additionally, working women were typically paid less than men. In some countries, the suffragette movement led to women gaining the right to vote soon after the war.

The Post-War World

After the armistice, representatives of the Allied Powers met at the Paris Peace Conference (1919-1920) to determine conditions imposed on the defeated Central Powers.

At the conference, U.S.... Continue reading "World War I Aftermath: Societal Shifts, Treaties, and League of Nations" »

Sculpture

New forms and materials. Subject matters no longer needed to be noble. Materials were frequently taken from industrial waste, such as iron and steel. Ex. Alexander Calder designed mobile sculptures always in motion. In painting (innovative movements) Surrealism: Inspiration in the subconscious and in dreams. Use absurd and irrational elements as subject matter. Dadaism: Suggested destruction of art. Marcel Duchamp proposed ready-made art. He transformed everyday objects into art by displaying them in an art gallery. He believed art was in the attitude of the spectator as much as in the object itself. Abstract movement: Painters explored the possibility of creating works that had no reference to the outside world. Colour and shape were... Continue reading "Innovative Movements in Art and Politics" »

Henry VIII (1491-1547)

England's Second Tudor Monarch

Henry VIII ruled England from 1509 and is best known for his six marriages and his efforts to annul his first marriage to Catherine of Aragon. When the Pope, the head of the Catholic Church, refused to allow the divorce, Henry challenged the Church's authority. He declared himself the Supreme Head of the Church of England through the Act of Supremacy (1534), solidifying his power and control over religious matters in England.

The Dissolution of the Monasteries

Henry VIII appointed Thomas Cromwell as his chief minister. Cromwell orchestrated the dissolution of Roman Catholic monasteries and convents between 1536 and 1540. During this period, Thomas More was beheaded for refusing to accept... Continue reading "A Brief History of England: From Henry VIII to the Virginia Company" »

Development of the First World War Conflict

Key Terms of WWI Phases

• War of Movements (1914): The initial phase of the First World War in 1914, characterized by both the Central Powers and the Allies attempting to achieve a decisive victory through rapid offensives, ultimately without success.
• Trench Warfare (1915-1916): The second phase of the First World War, from 1915 to 1916, where neither side achieved decisive victory. This period was defined by extensive lines of trenches dug into the ground, protected by machine guns and barbed wire, leading to a stalemate. During this phase, the conflict expanded globally with the entry of Bulgaria, Italy, Romania, Portugal, and Japan.

Main Phases of World War I

1. War of Movements (1914)

The war began on... Continue reading "World War I Conflict Development: Key Phases and Turning Points" »