Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Causes of the Second World War

• Failure of the Treaty of Versailles: It was too harsh on Germany. Intended as a peace treaty, its only achievement was fostering revenge and resentment, which Hitler used to justify his rise to power.
• Failure of the League of Nations: It failed to maintain world peace. Its main leaders were guided by self-interest, and the USA did not participate.
• Hitler's Expansionist Plan: Aggressive territorial ambitions.
• Policy of Appeasement: Britain and France viewed the treaty as an unfair pact. Instead of setting limits, they chose to appease Hitler, making him stronger.
• Wall Street Crash: The economic crisis caused global instability, unemployment, and inflation, which facilitated the rise of nationalist regimes and Hitler'

Realism and the First World War

Realism, a prominent theory in international relations, posits that states primarily pursue their own interests in maximizing power and ensuring security within an anarchic international system. Realists believe states act as unitary actors, striving to amass the greatest possible power for their national interest.

Core Tenets of Realism in International Relations

Realism, whose four essential assumptions are rooted in Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War (Mingst & Arreguin-Toft, 2011), asserts that states are:

• Power-hungry: Willing to go to any limit to attain power.
• Security-focused: Interested in their own security, often achieved by building alliances with other states.
• Unitary actors: Once a decision

Hitler's Core Objectives

Adolf Hitler's foreign policy was driven by several key objectives, which he believed would restore Germany's power and prestige:

• Abolishing the Treaty of Versailles

  Hitler vehemently opposed the Treaty of Versailles, viewing it as unjust and a constant reminder of Germany's defeat and humiliation in World War I. Upon coming to power, Germany ceased all reparation payments altogether.

• Expanding German Territory

  Hitler sought to reclaim territories lost by Germany under the Treaty of Versailles. His ambitions included uniting with Austria (the Anschluss), incorporating German minorities from neighboring states, and establishing a vast empire in Eastern Europe (Lebensraum).

• Defeating Communism

  As a staunch anti-communist, Hitler

Key Historical Terms

Concordat

An agreement that defines the relationship between the Catholic Church and the state.

Congress of Vienna

A conference between the European powers that defeated Napoleon, to establish European borders and secure peace.

Conservative Republic

The third phase of the French Revolution, initiated by the moderate bourgeoisie. Its government was opposed by the aristocracy and the common people.

Consulate

A period between 1799 and 1804 of autocratic and authoritarian rule; the government of France during this period.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

A text written during the first phase of the French Revolution that recognised the rights, freedom, and equality of all male citizens in law and taxation.

Directory

The... Continue reading "Key Terms: French Revolution and 19th Century Europe" »

Prelude to Revolution

In February 1917, a massive demonstration in Petrograd sparked a general strike and barracks riots. The Tsar abdicated, and a provisional government, dominated by bourgeois parties, took power.

The Provisional Government

The provisional government promised to establish a parliamentary democracy but remained committed to the war effort. This hindered promised reforms and exacerbated popular discontent.

Rise of the Soviets

The Soviets, workers' councils, demanded the government's dismissal and withdrawal from the war. The unity that had fueled the revolution began to fracture, creating a duality of power between the provisional government and the Soviets.

The Bolshevik Revolution

On October 25, 1917, the Bolsheviks, supported by... Continue reading "The Russian Revolution: From Tsarist Autocracy to Bolshevik Rule" »

1943 – 1955: The Perón Era

Perón’s Rise to Power

In 1943, the military sought to industrialize Argentina, often resorting to censorship and the imprisonment of opposition leaders. This approach threatened the industrialization program until Colonel Juan Domingo Perón took control of the Department of Labor (later the Ministry of Labor and Welfare).

• Social Mobilization: Perón recognized the potential of women and ethnic minorities, becoming a patron of the urban working class.
• Labor Reforms: He supported legislation that enabled women to pursue higher education and established equal pay for men and women.
• Political Turmoil: Perón’s progressive policies faced opposition from the military and the landed oligarchy. In October 1945, he was

The Rise of the Spanish Empire

The Catholic Monarchs (Late 15th Century)

At the end of the 15th century, the Catholic Monarchs established an authoritarian monarchy in the Iberian Peninsula, similar to those in France and England.

Dynastic Union (1469)

The kingdoms of Castile and Aragon united through a dynastic union in 1469. However, each kingdom retained its distinct laws and institutions, forming the Hispanic Monarchy.

Domestic Reforms

• Centralization of Power: The monarchs weakened the power of the nobility by creating a permanent army, gaining control of military orders and their lands, and establishing a royal treasury to increase tax revenue.
• Councils of Experts: Councils were formed to advise on matters related to territories, military orders,

Robert Southwell's "Decease Release" (c. 1593-95)

Historical Context

This poem, written around 1594, speaks through the voice of Mary Queen of Scots, a key figure in the Catholic Counter-Reformation. Mary's execution in 1587, under the reign of Elizabeth I, followed her alleged involvement in the Babington Plot to assassinate Elizabeth. Elizabeth's reign (1558-1603) was marked by the Elizabethan Settlement (1558-1559), which aimed to solidify the Protestant faith after the religious turmoil following the establishment of the Church of England. This settlement required conformity to Anglican practices, further alienating Catholics who viewed Mary as the rightful heir.

The Poem's Meaning

"Decease Release" reflects Mary's motto, "In my End is my... Continue reading "Mary Queen of Scots' Poem: "Decease Release" Analysis" »