European Religious and Political Conflicts: 1500–1700

The 16th and 17th Centuries in Europe

The 16th and 17th centuries in Europe were a violent period. With the Protestant Reformation, societies were divided along religious lines. However, these conflicts were also about power, money, and land. Many Protestants (Calvinists) considered sacred images as idols and, therefore, sinful. This belief in iconoclasm caused the destruction of religious art across Europe.

The Italian Wars

The Italian Wars were a series of conflicts fought in Italy between France, Spain, and other European powers. They began when the French king Charles VIII invaded Naples in 1494 and ended when the Emperor Charles V sacked Rome in 1559.

Civil Strife in France

In France, the fighting between French Catholics and French Protestants (Huguenots) caused eight civil wars from 1562 to 1598. Besides internal power struggles, other countries intervened: English, German, Scottish, Dutch, and Swiss troops helped the Huguenots, while Spanish, Italian, Papal, and Swiss troops helped the Catholics. Between 2 and 4 million people were killed as a result of war, famine, and disease.

The Ottoman Expansion

Not all wars were between Catholics and Protestants. In the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire, under Suleiman I “The Magnificent,” began expanding from the Balkans. On October 7, 1571, a fleet of the Holy League—a Catholic alliance of Spain and most of Italy—defeated the Turks at the Battle of Lepanto, where Miguel de Cervantes lost his hand.

The Eighty Years’ War

The Eighty Years’ War was a revolt of the Low Countries, supported by Britain, against the Habsburg kings Philip II, III, and IV of Spain. The conflict consisted of 37 years of war, a 12-year truce, and another 39 years of war.

European Dominance and Political Control

Beyond religious conflicts, states sought economic and political control. There was a continual contest for European dominance between the Habsburgs in Austria and Spain, the French House of Bourbon, and the British Crown, characterized by shifting alliances.

The Thirty Years’ War and Beyond

This era culminated in the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648). This is considered one of the most destructive conflicts in European history, with 8 million dead due to violence, famine, and disease; some parts of Germany lost 60% of their population. Wars continued with the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), described as “the first world war of modern times,” which finally brought an end to the Wars of Religion in Europe.