Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Provisional Government's Initial Steps

Following the February Revolution, the Provisional Government established liberal credentials, for example, by abolishing the death penalty. Russia became, in theory, the freest of all the warring states.

Challenges Facing the Provisional Government

Unmet Expectations

• Elections were postponed due to World War I.
• The Provisional Government was reluctant to embark on significant land reform, disappointing peasant expectations.

Dual Power Structure

• A major conflict, known as Dual Power, existed between the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet (and other left-wing workers' and soldiers' councils across the country).

Breakdown of Law and Order

• Widespread rural disturbances occurred as peasants seized

NATIONALISM: devotion to the interests and culture of one's nation.

1. THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY The most democratic organ, in which each state (193) gets one vote, no matter how big or small, rich or poor. The General Assembly has the competence to discuss and make recommendations on all matters that fall within the scope of the UN Charter.

2. THE SECURITY COUNCIL The most powerful organ. Its primary responsibility is to maintain peace and security.

It is composed of 15 members, 5 permanent with veto power (United States, China, France, Russia, and the United Kingdom) and 10 elected by the GA for 2 years.

The Security Council is the only organ that can impose sanctions on states or deploy military forces on behalf of the international community to keep the peace in certain areas, regions, or countries.

3. THE SECRETARIAT

Book

Author: Josiah Gregg

Date: 1831

After the Mexican Revolution in 1821, U.S. merchants began trading in the Santa Fe, New Mexico, area. Josiah Gregg was one of those early traders. Based in Independence, Missouri, Gregg began his southwestern travels in 1831. Commerce of the Prairies, a record of Gregg's experiences, was a complete success. His descriptions of the region's human and physical geography and the maps he made were the best available at the time. Nowadays, it is still considered a classic description of the North American Southwest before the coming of the railroads and an excellent history of the early Santa Fe trade.

Gregg died of exposure and starvation while on an exploratory trip in California's Coast Range in 1850.

Gregg's 1839

The Persian War

The Persian War began in the 6th century BC. They conquered many of the polis in Asia Minor and in the eastern Mediterranean. These cities rebelled against the Persians. The first Persian War ended when the hoplites defeated the Persians at the Battle of Marathon. King Xerxes I began the second Persian War but was defeated at the Battle of Salamis.

The Peloponnesian War

Under the leadership of Athens, many polis formed a union called the Delian League. The domination of Athens threatened other polis such as Sparta, which opposed the Delian League of Athens and its allies. The two sides fought against each other in the Peloponnesian War. Sparta won the war and became the leading polis.

Alexander the Great

Philip II of Macedon took... Continue reading "The Persian War, Peloponnesian War, and Alexander the Great" »

The Popular Front in Spain: A Pre-Civil War Coalition

This document outlines the program of the Popular Front, a significant coalition formed between Republican and Socialist parties in Spain. Constituted just one month before the pivotal 1936 elections, this left-wing alliance united against a common enemy: the rising threat of fascism. Authored by a collective of representatives from both Republican and Socialist parties, this text serves as a primary source document, offering a historical perspective on a critical period.

Historical Context: The Second Spanish Republic (1931-1936)

Proclamation of the Republic and Early Instability (1931-1933)

In 1931, the results of municipal elections led to the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic in... Continue reading "Spain's Popular Front: 1936 Elections and Civil War Origins" »

5th Slide: Hendrik Verwoerd , who became prime minister in 1958, would refine apartheid policy further into a system he referred to as ``separate development´´. Separating black South Africans from each other enabled the government to claim there was no black majority. 

A system that supposedly gave them full political rights, but effectively removed them from the nation´s political body. 

6th Slide: Resistance to apartheid within South Africa took many forms over the years. Violent demonstrations, protests and strikes to political action and eventually to armed resistance. The South Indian National Congress, the ANC organized a mass meeting in 1952, during which attendees burned their pass books. Congress of the people adopted a Freedom

THE POLICY OF APPEASEMENT

Chamberlain returns from Munich and says he has saved world peace for a long time, waving a paper in which Hitler promised he didn't have more territorial demands in Czechoslovakia. A year later, Germany invades Czechoslovakia.

What is Appeasement?

A diplomatic policy of making political or material concessions to an aggressive power to avoid conflict. It was a total failure. It is applied to the foreign policy of the UK governments in the 1930s, towards the Nazis and Fascists in Italy.

Failure (future perspective):

Why appease Hitler?

• The League of Nations abandoned Czechoslovakia
• Britain is not prepared for war with the Luftwaffe
• Munich was followed by more Nazi demands and attacks
• The Czechs had 36 divisions ready to fight

Napoleon Bonaparte and the French Consulate

The Rise of the Consulate

The French Consulate was established in 1799 following the Coup of 18-19 Brumaire, during the tumultuous French Revolution. This new government, led by Napoleon Bonaparte, marked a significant shift in French politics.

Key Developments During the Consulate

• Concordat of 1801: An agreement between the Vatican and the French government, addressing matters of mutual interest and re-establishing the Catholic Church in France.
• Constitution of 1800: This constitution formally established the Consulate as the governing body of France.
• Napoleonic Code (1804): Also known as the Civil Code, this comprehensive legal system had a profound impact on French society and legal traditions across