Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Enlightenment

The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that emerged in France in the 18th century. The most important ideas were:

• Confidence in reason
• Faith in human progress through science
• Criticism of the Old Regime

Old Regime

The Old Regime refers to the political, economic, and social system in Europe from the 15th century to the 18th century. It was characterized by:

• Political: Absolute monarchy
• Economic: An economy based on agriculture
• Social: A stratified society

Salons

Salons were meetings in private homes where intellectuals discussed politics, culture, and other topics. These gatherings contributed to the spread of Enlightenment ideas.

Encyclopaedia

The Encyclopaedia was a 28-volume work that summarized the knowledge of its time and included... Continue reading "The Enlightenment and its Impact: A Comprehensive Guide" »

The Renaissance and Early Modern Europe (1450-1600)

1450: Constantinople Falls, Renaissance Dawns

• Ottoman Turks seize Constantinople.
• The Renaissance begins.

1517: Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation

• The Reformation starts with Martin Luther, emphasizing inner-directed faith.

1534: Calvinism's Rise in France

• Calvinism emerges in France, defining the relationship with God as a legal covenant.

1545-1563: The Council of Trent and Catholic Reform

• The Council of Trent addresses education and strengthens the Inquisition.

1555: Peace of Augsburg

• The Peace of Augsburg establishes a religious settlement for 60 years, involving Charles V and the Schmalkaldic League.

1562-1598: Huguenot Wars in France

• Conflicts between Huguenots and French Catholics, including

The War of Independence & The Birth of a Nation (1775-1783)

Causes of the War of Independence

• The French & Indian War
• Colonial self-sufficiency
• Taxation without representation, including:
  • The Stamp Act (1765): Imposed taxes to raise colonial revenue.
  • The Townshend Acts: Imposed internal taxes.

Key Events Leading to War

• The Boston Massacre (1770)
• The Boston Tea Party (1773)
• The Intolerable Acts (1774): Closed Boston Harbor as an example of English attempts to isolate the colonies from each other.

Major Events During the War

• 1774 - The First Continental Congress: Representatives of the 13 colonies met in Philadelphia to improve relations with England. The effort failed.
• April 1775 - The Battles of Lexington and Concord: Fighting broke out in Massachusetts

The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)

Causes:

This war was caused by the conflict between Catholics and Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire. Gradually, it developed into a more general conflict for European political dominance.

The Main Problem of the War and the Different Participants:

Protestants Uprising in Bohemia:

Some Protestant nobles expelled the Catholic rulers and appointed a Protestant King in Bohemia. The Emperor, who was also King of Bohemia, fought against them.

Two Sides Were Formed:

1. The Emperor had the support of the German Catholics and the Kings of Spain and Portugal.
2. The Protestants allied with German princes, but they were defeated.

Swedish Participation:

1. After the Surrender of Breda, the German Catholics took the Protestants' possessions,

Causes of World War I

Colonial Rivalries: Provoked strained relations and clashes.

Alliances: Created a "balance of power" fueled by mutual fear.

Arms Race: European countries engaged in military buildup and war preparations.

Balkan Crisis: Conflicts between Austria and Russia threatened peace between the Triple Alliance and Triple Entente.

The Spark that Ignited the World

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie in Sarajevo, blamed on Serbia by Austria, provided Austria the opportunity to declare war on July 28, 1914.

Life in the Trenches

• Long, narrow ditches dug into the ground.
• Muddy conditions infested with rats and lice.
• Rampant diseases like fever, gangrene, requiring amputations.
• Constant threat of death.

Why Did the USA

Cold War Conflicts

Korean War (1950-1953)

North Korea invaded South Korea. South Korea was supported by the USA, Great Britain, and France. North Korea was supported by China and the USSR. The fighting ended on July 27, 1953, when the Korean Armistice Agreement was signed, resulting in a stalemate. It is the only conflict that persists nowadays.

Vietnam War (1955-1975)

The US feared Vietnam becoming communist, so they invaded. North Vietnam was supported by the USSR and China (communists). South Vietnam was supported by the USA and Australia (anti-communists). Vietnam became communist. This is the only war the USA lost.

Berlin Blockade (1948-1949)

The USSR blocked access to Berlin. West Berlin was capitalist (USA, France, UK), and East Berlin was... Continue reading "Cold War Conflicts: Korea, Vietnam, Berlin & More" »

INDEPENDENCE, CONSTITUTION, BILL OF RIGHTS

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ROAD TO INDEPENDENCE

WHY INDEPENDENCE? Two main ideological roots that are opposed:

OLD REGIME

It was a social and political system established in Western Europe from approximately the 15th century. The political system was authoritarian and had absolute monarchy, demography (old demographic regime), society (estates of realm), economy (agrarian subsistence economy), and religion.

ENLIGHTENMENT

It was an intellectual movement developed in the 18th century. It started in France and spread to Europe and America. It defended progress, education, nature, encyclopedias, and separation of powers.

REVOLUTION

A historical process that drives to a very deep change which can be political or economical. They are usually short.

AMERICAN REVOLUTION

The progress of independence of the USA (1775-1783). It was a colonial revolt against the British... Continue reading "The Old Regime, Enlightenment, and Revolution in Europe and America" »

World War II

WW2 (1939-1945) was a vast conflict between Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, Japan) and Allied Powers (Britain, USSR, France, USA). Consequences:

• Impact of WW1: Germany lost territory and economy was damaged by the need to pay war reparations.
• Rise of fascism and nationalism: Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, many feared a communist revolution.
• Weakness of democracies: Expansionism of Germany and Italy was only possible because Britain and France avoided another war.
• Great Depression: Economic crises in many countries led to extreme ideologies like Nazism.

Outbreak of WW2: Germany claimed lost territory from Poland, leading to the invasion in 1939. Advance of Fascism: Japan occupied Manchuria in 1931, while Germany and Italy made... Continue reading "World War II: Causes, Events, and Consequences" »