Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Council of Europe: A Champion of Democracy and Human Rights

The Council of Europe is a regional, multilateral organization established in 1949 by the Treaty of London. It is headquartered in Strasbourg, France, and has 47 member countries. It is important to note that the Council of Europe is not an integration process.

Objectives

The Council of Europe's primary objectives are to promote freedom and create a democratic and legal area based on the principles outlined in the European Convention on Human Rights.

The Convention, established in 1950, is the Council's main achievement. Any country wishing to become a member must ratify it, organize free elections, abolish the death penalty, and guarantee the rule of law. It is the first instrument to... Continue reading "Council of Europe: History, Structure, and Human Rights" »

Nazi Dictatorship and the Third Reich

When the Third Reich was proclaimed, political parties and unions were forbidden, the parliament was closed, and political and social freedoms were struck down as the opposition was persecuted. The Nazi Party became the only legal political entity, with justice and administration controlled directly by party members.

Totalitarian Control and Social Engineering

Education, culture, universities, and art were also controlled by the Nazi Party. Censorship was used to dominate means of communication, including radio, cinema, the press, information tampering, and the burning of books. They attempted to impose a family and social model according to Nazi ideology: women were expected to be good housewives, focusing... Continue reading "Nazi Germany: The Third Reich and the Path to War" »

Post-WWI Mandates and the Rise of Zionism

At the end of the First World War, the Ottoman Empire was dismantled. The Arab territories that formed part of it came under French and British administrations or mandates. The Arabs aspired to create one great nation, and their project was supported by the French.

However, in the 1920s, Zionist nationalism, which demanded the creation of a Jewish state in the Middle East, encouraged the emigration of Jews from all over the world to Palestine, one of the territories left under the British mandate. This project was supported by Great Britain, as expressed in the Balfour Declaration.

The Balfour Declaration (1917)

The British Foreign Secretary, Lord Balfour, sent a note to Baron Rothschild expressing his... Continue reading "Origins of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: From Mandates to War" »

The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Empire

Revolution:

A dramatic change that often includes the fall of a government or the transformation of a social and economic order.

Napoleon Bonaparte:

Military commander who took power in France in 1799 and was emperor from 1804 until his defeat at Waterloo in 1815.

Napoleonic Empire:

Territory conquered and controlled by Napoleon between 1804 and 1815.

The Beginning of the Modern Age

The outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789 marked the start of the Modern Age.

Before the French Revolution, the enlightened despots failed to make the political, economic, and social changes that Enlightenment thinkers had proposed. These changes were violently imposed by revolutionaries, as reforms had failed.

• A political

The Republic (1873-1874)

After the abdication, the Cortes voted the Republic as the new form of government. However, the regime was unstable, headed by a political minority, the Republicans, who were themselves divided into those in favor of a unitary state, those in favor of a federal one, and finally the supporters of a presidential Republic.

These disputes undermined the credibility of the Republic. Therefore, the monarchists (such as Cánovas del Castillo), supporting the candidature of Isabella's son, Prince Alfonso of Bourbon, began to pave the peaceful way to the restoration of the monarchy, which they wanted to identify with political tradition and stability.

Eventually, it was a military coup (led by General Pavia) that really ended the... Continue reading "Spanish History: Republic, Restoration, and Canovist System" »

The Reign of Charles V (1516-1556)

Inheritance and Early Rule

Charles V inherited a vast empire. On his mother's side, he received the Crowns of Aragon and Castile, along with territories in America, Italy, and Africa. From his father's side, he inherited lands as a member of the Habsburg dynasty, including territories in Germany, the Low Countries, Luxembourg, and eastern France.

The Revolt of the Comuneros (1520-1521)

In 1520, the Revolt of the Comuneros erupted in Castilian cities. The uprising was sparked by opposition to Charles V's policies, particularly his high taxes and his focus on foreign affairs. The royal army ultimately defeated the comuneros at the Battle of Villalar in 1521, and their leaders were executed.

Financial Challenges

Charles... Continue reading "The Spanish Empire Under Charles V and Philip II" »

Chartism: A Working-Class Movement

Chartism was a working-class movement that emerged in 19th-century Britain, advocating for political reform and social justice. The working-class people, who were not among the wealthiest, aimed to create a fairer society for themselves and others like them. They were named Chartists after the People's Charter.

Origins of Chartism

Chartism emerged in London in 1836 and quickly expanded across the country, with its most active period between 1838 and 1848. The Chartists publicized their demands through meetings and pamphlets. Several factors contributed to its rise:

• Rapid urbanization in British society led to unsanitary living conditions and long working hours for the working class.
• Only a small portion of the

Key 20th-Century Historical Definitions

Stalinism

Stalinism is a totalitarian political system established by Joseph Stalin in the USSR, beginning in 1927.

Totalitarianism

Totalitarianism is a political system where a single party holds total control over the economy and society, establishing an authoritarian state characterized by the rejection of equality, ultra-nationalism, and militarism.

Sovkhozy

Sovkhozy were state-owned farms under Stalin's government where peasants worked for a salary.

Kolkhozy

Kolkhozy were agricultural cooperatives under Stalin's government where land was owned and farmed collectively.

USSR

The USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) was a political organization created in 1922 by Vladimir Lenin, composed of Russia and other... Continue reading "Key Historical Terms of the 20th Century: Stalinism to WWII" »

Answer the Questions

Consolidation of Royal Authority in Spain

The Catholic Monarchs asserted royal authority. In return, the nobles kept their privileges and passed their great estates on to their descendants through a system called mayorazgo.

Key administrative and judicial figures played a crucial role in imposing royal authority:

• The corregidor served as the administrative and judicial figure in the cities.
• The Santa Hermandad was a precursor to a police force, operating in both the cities and the countryside.

The monarchy managed to guarantee a regular income by creating new taxes and establishing a central tax office called the Contaduría Real de Hacienda. Furthermore, the Catholic Monarchs created a permanent professional army so that they were no longer dependent... Continue reading "Consolidation of Royal Power and the Great Voyages of Discovery" »