Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Marxism (19th Century)

Marxism posits that the world is divided into two primary structures: infrastructure and superstructure. The infrastructure consists of the economy and relations of production, while the superstructure encompasses ideology, culture, morality, and religion. For Marx, the infrastructure determines the superstructure. He sought to transform utopian socialism into scientific socialism.

Key tenets of Marxist theory include:

• Historical Materialism: History is economic and driven by class struggle.
• Coherence: Changes in ideas must align with the infrastructure.
• Class Antagonism: Capitalist societies are defined by the conflict between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie.
• Revolution: When antagonism becomes unbearable, the proletariat

Economic and Political Terms of the Interwar Period

• Great Depression: A severe global economic crisis that began in the USA in 1929.
• Nazi: Refers to an extreme nationalist political party which came to power in Germany in 1933.
• Fascist: Refers to the extreme nationalist political parties which emerged in many European countries during the inter-war period.
• Spanish Civil War: A civil war fought between Nationalist and Republican forces from 1936 to 1939.
• Democracy: A form of government in which power belongs to the citizens, who vote for their political representatives in elections.
• Authoritarian: A non-democratic form of government in which there are no free and fair elections; freedoms and civil rights are limited, and political opposition is suppressed.

Origins and Core Purpose

The League of Nations, established in 1920 after the devastation of World War I, marked a pivotal moment as the first international organization of its kind. Its primary purpose was to prevent another global conflict, fostering international peace and security through collective action.

Key Functions and Mandates

Beyond its overarching goal, the League undertook several critical functions:

• Mandates: Administering territories that previously belonged to the defeated powers, often as a “penalty” for their conquering. These territories were to be prepared for self-governance.
• Protection of Minorities: Safeguarding the rights and interests of ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities within member states.
• Functional Cooperation:

The Independence of Spanish America

In the last years of the reign of Ferdinand VII, the independence of the Spanish colonies in America took place. The process was advanced by the criollos, dissatisfied with their political marginalization, the high taxes, and the social discrimination they faced compared to peninsular Spaniards. It was driven by the spread of European liberal and revolutionary ideas and by military aid from the United States and the United Kingdom. It was carried out in two stages:

• The first stage (1810-1814) coincided with the War of Independence, during which revolutionary juntas displayed tendencies that favored independence, led by Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín. They were repressed after the return of Ferdinand

Council of Europe: A Champion of Democracy and Human Rights

The Council of Europe is a regional, multilateral organization established in 1949 by the Treaty of London. It is headquartered in Strasbourg, France, and has 47 member countries. It is important to note that the Council of Europe is not an integration process.

Objectives

The Council of Europe's primary objectives are to promote freedom and create a democratic and legal area based on the principles outlined in the European Convention on Human Rights.

The Convention, established in 1950, is the Council's main achievement. Any country wishing to become a member must ratify it, organize free elections, abolish the death penalty, and guarantee the rule of law. It is the first instrument to... Continue reading "Council of Europe: History, Structure, and Human Rights" »

Nazi Dictatorship and the Third Reich

When the Third Reich was proclaimed, political parties and unions were forbidden, the parliament was closed, and political and social freedoms were struck down as the opposition was persecuted. The Nazi Party became the only legal political entity, with justice and administration controlled directly by party members.

Totalitarian Control and Social Engineering

Education, culture, universities, and art were also controlled by the Nazi Party. Censorship was used to dominate means of communication, including radio, cinema, the press, information tampering, and the burning of books. They attempted to impose a family and social model according to Nazi ideology: women were expected to be good housewives, focusing... Continue reading "Nazi Germany: The Third Reich and the Path to War" »

Post-WWI Mandates and the Rise of Zionism

At the end of the First World War, the Ottoman Empire was dismantled. The Arab territories that formed part of it came under French and British administrations or mandates. The Arabs aspired to create one great nation, and their project was supported by the French.

However, in the 1920s, Zionist nationalism, which demanded the creation of a Jewish state in the Middle East, encouraged the emigration of Jews from all over the world to Palestine, one of the territories left under the British mandate. This project was supported by Great Britain, as expressed in the Balfour Declaration.

The Balfour Declaration (1917)

The British Foreign Secretary, Lord Balfour, sent a note to Baron Rothschild expressing his... Continue reading "Origins of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: From Mandates to War" »

The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Empire

Revolution:

A dramatic change that often includes the fall of a government or the transformation of a social and economic order.

Napoleon Bonaparte:

Military commander who took power in France in 1799 and was emperor from 1804 until his defeat at Waterloo in 1815.

Napoleonic Empire:

Territory conquered and controlled by Napoleon between 1804 and 1815.

The Beginning of the Modern Age

The outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789 marked the start of the Modern Age.

Before the French Revolution, the enlightened despots failed to make the political, economic, and social changes that Enlightenment thinkers had proposed. These changes were violently imposed by revolutionaries, as reforms had failed.

• A political

The Republic (1873-1874)

After the abdication, the Cortes voted the Republic as the new form of government. However, the regime was unstable, headed by a political minority, the Republicans, who were themselves divided into those in favor of a unitary state, those in favor of a federal one, and finally the supporters of a presidential Republic.

These disputes undermined the credibility of the Republic. Therefore, the monarchists (such as Cánovas del Castillo), supporting the candidature of Isabella's son, Prince Alfonso of Bourbon, began to pave the peaceful way to the restoration of the monarchy, which they wanted to identify with political tradition and stability.

Eventually, it was a military coup (led by General Pavia) that really ended the... Continue reading "Spanish History: Republic, Restoration, and Canovist System" »

The Reign of Charles V (1516-1556)

Inheritance and Early Rule

Charles V inherited a vast empire. On his mother's side, he received the Crowns of Aragon and Castile, along with territories in America, Italy, and Africa. From his father's side, he inherited lands as a member of the Habsburg dynasty, including territories in Germany, the Low Countries, Luxembourg, and eastern France.

The Revolt of the Comuneros (1520-1521)

In 1520, the Revolt of the Comuneros erupted in Castilian cities. The uprising was sparked by opposition to Charles V's policies, particularly his high taxes and his focus on foreign affairs. The royal army ultimately defeated the comuneros at the Battle of Villalar in 1521, and their leaders were executed.

Financial Challenges

Charles... Continue reading "The Spanish Empire Under Charles V and Philip II" »