Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Fascism originated in Italy after World War I and later spread to other countries of Europe. There are three key characteristics:

Authoritarianism

This is the supremacy of the state, which means the state comes before individual rights. Propaganda was used to gain people's loyalty.

Ultra-Nationalism, Imperialism, and Militarism

This was an aggressive foreign policy of territorial expansions that sought to provide the state with more living space. It had a lot of racism and xenophobia because the nation was defined by race.

Economic Control

Capitalism is allowed, but the main goal is to achieve national self-sufficiency through extreme protectionism. The state establishes corporations of business owners and workers, cooperation is encouraged, and... Continue reading "The Origins and Characteristics of Fascism in Europe" »

11th Century Developments

Technological Innovations

Key advancements included:

• Three-year crop rotation
• Iron-wheeled mouldboard plough
• New type of harness

Political Transformations

The Cortes or parliament emerged. These were assemblies representing not only the privileged classes but also the bourgeoisie, representing the broader population. The King often asked these assemblies for help (e.g., taxes, recruitment of troops).

Political Organisation in Cities

Initially subject to the authority of a feudal lord, the rising bourgeoisie did not approve of this situation and demanded greater autonomy. Kings or feudal lords granted fueros to the cities – documents specifying the rights of the lords or king and the inhabitants of the city. Administration... Continue reading "Medieval Europe: Society, Culture & Change (11th-15th C.)" »

Tyranny

Tyranny is a form of government in which the ruling power is in the hands of an individual who has seized control, often by illegal means. The word tyranny comes from the Greek word tyrannos, which means "usurper with supreme power." Over time, a person who ruled by tyranny, or a tyrant, became known for holding onto power by cruel, abusive means.

Democracy

A democracy is a form of government in which the ruling power is in the hands of all people. The word democracy comes from the Greek terms demos (meaning people) and kratos (meaning power).

Oligarchy

An oligarchy is a form of government in which the ruling power is in the hands of a few leaders. The word oligarchy comes from the Greek terms oligos (meaning few) and arkhein (meaning rule)... Continue reading "Ancient Greece and Rome: Key Terms" »

Factors Causing Peace System Failure or Success

The League of Nations (LON) was a system created to maintain peace. Promoted during World War I by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, the League was established in 1920 with the idea of preventing another catastrophic conflict through discussion, negotiation, and diplomacy.

Core Aims of the League of Nations

At its peak, the LON had 60 members. Its primary aims included:

• Collective Security: Protecting every member nation from external attacks.
• Peaceful Dispute Resolution: Helping countries settle disputes peacefully through negotiation.
• Disarmament: Encouraging member countries to reduce their armaments.
• International Cooperation: Promoting global collaboration on shared issues.

Humanitarian Successes

These... Continue reading "Why Peace Systems Fail: The League of Nations Case Study" »

The Muslim World

Recent Armed Conflicts

The Gulf War (1990-1991)

• The Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait. An international coalition led by the USA under UN mandate liberated Kuwait. It imposed an embargo on Iraqi oil.

The Invasion of Afghanistan (2001)

• Consequence of the attack on New York and Washington on September 11, 2001, organized by Al-Qaeda.
• Al-Qaeda was based in Afghanistan and supported by the Taliban government.
• A coalition of troops from the US and allied countries overthrew the Taliban regime.
• A provisional government was established in its place.

The Invasion of Iraq (2003)

• There was a fear that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction (threat to world peace).
• The USA, the UK, and other allied countries, including Spain, overthrew

Cubism

Dadaism

The Rise of Liberalism in Spain

Following the death of Ferdinand VII, a succession crisis ignited a civil war. Carlos María Isidro, the brother of Ferdinand, claimed the throne with the support of absolutists. Conversely, Isabella, Ferdinand’s daughter, was the legitimate heir. She secured the support of the liberals on the condition that she would establish a liberal regime upon victory. She ultimately prevailed, leading to the formal establishment of liberalism in Spain.

Key Historical Definitions

• José Bonaparte: French statesman, lawyer, and diplomat; older brother of Napoleon. He served as King of Spain during the War of Independence but was defeated by Ferdinand VII’s forces.
• Cortes de Cádiz (1810–1814): A constituent assembly held

The short story “The Force of Circumstances” symbolizes the British imperialism.

1. The Rise of Neoclassicism

After the French Revolution in 1789, Europe was overtaken by liberal and national movements. What architectural movement was in style at that time that highlighted the use of Greek and Roman forms without overt ornamentation?

c. Neo-Classical

2. Innovations in Reinforced Concrete

In Europe, there were great technical developments in reinforced concrete construction as advanced by Joseph Monier in 1877. Who was the man that substituted steel for iron in reinforced concrete construction and developed the hooked connections for reinforcing bars?

c. Francois Hennebique

3. Principles of Traditional Town Design

Which of the following statements is true about traditional town design?

a. There is a variety of dwelling types within... Continue reading "A History of Architecture: From Neoclassicism to Modernism" »

The Conservative Period (1933-1936)

The Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas (CEDA) won the elections and formed a government in coalition with Lerroux and his party, Partido Radical de Centro.

In 1934, members of the CEDA entered the government, and protests escalated into the October Revolution of 1934.

In Asturias, miners initiated a rebellion. The revolt was suppressed by the army, which deployed Moroccan troops led by Franco to control the situation.

In Barcelona, the autonomous government proclaimed a Catalan Republic separate from the Spanish Republic. The Statute of Autonomy was abolished, and the Generalitat was dissolved.

New elections were held in 1936. The Frente Popular (left-wing parties) won.

The Popular Front (February-