Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

1921, hungary dictatrship by Horty. 1922, Italy by Mussolini. 1923,Spain by Primo de Rivera. 1926, poland by Pilsduki. 1929, Yugoslava by Alexander I. 1932, Portugal by Salazar. 1933, Germany by Hitler, Austria by Dollfus. 1936, Greece by Metaxas. 1939, Spain by Franco.

1931, Japan occupies Manchuria. 1933, Hitler cancellor. 1935, Italy invades ethipia. 1936, Rome-berlin axis, anti-commitern pact. 1938, Germany annexes autsria, munich conference. 1939, germany annexes czechoslovakia, nazi soviet pact.

1940 (MAY) germany occupies netherlands and belgium. (JUNE) germany occupies paris. (JULY) start battle britain. (OCT) italy invades greece. 1941 (JUNE) germany invades the ussr. (DEC) japan attack pearl harbour.

1942, battle of midway and el alemin.... Continue reading "Timeline of World War II: Rise of Dictatorships and Key Events" »

Dancing with the Wolves: Conquest of the West

The closing of the American frontier is marked by two significant dates: the Wounded Knee Massacre in South Dakota (1890) and the Columbian Exposition in Chicago (1893). The latter showcased America's triumph and glory. Historian Frederick Jackson Turner delivered a speech at the Exposition, declaring the frontier officially closed.

The Gilded Age and the Rise of Industrialization

The closure of the frontier coincided with the onset of the Gilded Age, a period of rapid industrialization. People migrated from rural areas to burgeoning industrial cities. Small farms suffered due to the rise of agribusiness.

Muckrakers and Social Reform

Amidst widespread corruption, a movement of middle-class intellectuals,... Continue reading "American Frontier Closure & Rise of Industrial Power: 1890-1920" »

The Vietnam War (1955-1975)

Overview

The Vietnam War, also known as the Second Indochina War and the Resistance War Against America (or simply the American War in Vietnam), was a protracted conflict spanning from November 1, 1955, to the fall of Saigon on April 30, 1975. The war involved Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.

Officially, the war was fought between North Vietnam (supported by the Soviet Union, China, and other communist allies) and South Vietnam (backed by the United States, South Korea, the Philippines, Australia, Thailand, and other anti-communist allies). Often considered a Cold War-era proxy war, the conflict lasted 19 years, with direct U.S. involvement concluding in 1973. The war resulted in the communist takeover of all three countries... Continue reading "Vietnam War: A Cold War Era Conflict" »

Three Roads to Modernity

1. Capitalist Democratic Road

• Identified in the UK, France, and the USA.
• The peasant question is solved as the peasantry is quickly and efficiently absorbed by the new economic system.
• Steps: enclosure, new technology, industry (normally starting with mining and textiles).
• In these three countries, there is a bourgeoisie that controls the industrialization process.
• This way, they become firstly economically wealthy and then politically powerful (need of political power to consolidate economic power).
• Finally, the landed aristocracy branched out to the bourgeoisie.

This is clearly reflected in the voting power. Initially, only the aristocracy could vote, but gradually the right to vote began involving those who were gaining... Continue reading "Three Paths to Modernity: A Comparative Study" »

The First Stage (1939-1941)

Victories of the Axis Powers

Germany launched a "blitzkrieg" or lightning war, concentrating a great force of tanks and planes to break through enemy lines. Thanks to Russia's neutrality, the Nazis conquered most of Western Europe (Denmark, Norway, Luxembourg, Belgium, the Low Countries, and France). The United Kingdom managed to stop them.

Italy supported Germany and attacked France from the south. France was forced to sign an armistice and recognize the division of its territory:

• An occupied territory under German control
• A collaborationist government in the south established in the city of Vichy.

The Nazis went on to conquer:

• North Africa
• The Balkans

They started the invasion of Russia, reaching Moscow and Stalingrad (... Continue reading "The Cold War: From Détente to Dissolution" »

Marxism (19th Century)

Marxism posits that the world is divided into two primary structures: infrastructure and superstructure. The infrastructure consists of the economy and relations of production, while the superstructure encompasses ideology, culture, morality, and religion. For Marx, the infrastructure determines the superstructure. He sought to transform utopian socialism into scientific socialism.

Key tenets of Marxist theory include:

• Historical Materialism: History is economic and driven by class struggle.
• Coherence: Changes in ideas must align with the infrastructure.
• Class Antagonism: Capitalist societies are defined by the conflict between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie.
• Revolution: When antagonism becomes unbearable, the proletariat

Economic and Political Terms of the Interwar Period

• Great Depression: A severe global economic crisis that began in the USA in 1929.
• Nazi: Refers to an extreme nationalist political party which came to power in Germany in 1933.
• Fascist: Refers to the extreme nationalist political parties which emerged in many European countries during the inter-war period.
• Spanish Civil War: A civil war fought between Nationalist and Republican forces from 1936 to 1939.
• Democracy: A form of government in which power belongs to the citizens, who vote for their political representatives in elections.
• Authoritarian: A non-democratic form of government in which there are no free and fair elections; freedoms and civil rights are limited, and political opposition is suppressed.

Origins and Core Purpose

The League of Nations, established in 1920 after the devastation of World War I, marked a pivotal moment as the first international organization of its kind. Its primary purpose was to prevent another global conflict, fostering international peace and security through collective action.

Key Functions and Mandates

Beyond its overarching goal, the League undertook several critical functions:

• Mandates: Administering territories that previously belonged to the defeated powers, often as a “penalty” for their conquering. These territories were to be prepared for self-governance.
• Protection of Minorities: Safeguarding the rights and interests of ethnic, religious, and linguistic minorities within member states.
• Functional Cooperation:

The Independence of Spanish America

In the last years of the reign of Ferdinand VII, the independence of the Spanish colonies in America took place. The process was advanced by the criollos, dissatisfied with their political marginalization, the high taxes, and the social discrimination they faced compared to peninsular Spaniards. It was driven by the spread of European liberal and revolutionary ideas and by military aid from the United States and the United Kingdom. It was carried out in two stages:

• The first stage (1810-1814) coincided with the War of Independence, during which revolutionary juntas displayed tendencies that favored independence, led by Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín. They were repressed after the return of Ferdinand