Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Progressive Biennium (1854–1856)

• The Progressive Liberals resorted to a military coup d'état to access power when the political system and the prestige of the monarchy weakened.
• New President of the Government: Espartero, with the help of the Unionist General O'Donnell.
• Confiscation and privatization of civil and communal assets (fostered by Minister of Economy, Madoz, in 1855).
• General Railway Law (1855).

The Final Years of Isabella II (1856–1868)

• Power was held alternately by the Moderates of Narváez and the Unionists of O'Donnell.

• Moderate Policies

  • Creation of an educational system (the Moyano Law), regulating primary education.
  • Colonialist foreign policy: campaigns in Morocco, Indochina, and Mexico.

• Growing Opposition

  • Growing opposition

Economic Growth and Social Transformation (1957-1960s)

The technocrats prevailed, and members of Opus Dei assumed significant posts in Franco's 1957 cabinet. Measures proposed by these technocrats were incorporated into the Stabilization Plan of 1959, which aimed to:

• Curb inflation.
• Reduce government economic controls.
• Bring Spanish economic policies and procedures in line with European standards.

The plan laid the basis for Spain's remarkable economic transformation in the 1960s. During that decade, Spain's industrial production and standard of living increased dramatically. The effects were profound. Foreign investment entered the country, attracted by low production costs and the absence of trade union freedom. The stabilizing measures established... Continue reading "Spain's Economic Miracle and the Decline of Francoism (1957–1975)" »

Ancien Regime

The Ancien Regime was a social and political system characterized by an absolute monarchy, a stratified society, and an economic system based on agrarian subsistence. Religion held significant influence during this period.

Louis XIV

King Louis XIV of France, a member of the Bourbon dynasty, was a staunch supporter of absolute monarchy. He centralized legislative, executive, and judicial powers under his rule.

The Enlightenment

The Enlightenment, an intellectual movement that emerged spontaneously in 18th-century France, championed several key ideas:

• Trust in reason
• Faith in progress
• Belief in the power of education
• Nature as a guide for morality
• Criticism of the Ancien Regime, particularly its lack of separation of powers

The movement spread... Continue reading "The Age of Enlightenment and Revolutions: A Historical Overview" »

The Holocaust

Exclusion (1933-1939)

The first measure was the exclusion of Jews from public life, preventing them from earning a living. Books written by Jews were burned. In 1935, Hitler introduced the Nuremberg Laws, which deprived Jews of their German citizenship and banned marriage between Germans and Jews.

Ghettoes (1939-1940)

These were closed-off city neighborhoods where all Jewish residents were required to live together. The main ghettos were in Poland.

Extermination (1941-1945)

Jews were killed in gas chambers and cremation ovens.

The Peace Settlement

Yalta and Potsdam Conferences (1945)

1) Yalta

• Germany would be divided into occupied zones.
• Stalin promised to hold free elections in Eastern Europe, although they never took place.
• The USSR would

Isabella II reigned between 1843 and 1868. Her reign meant the consolidation of Spain as a liberal State. She always preferred the moderates to rule and she called them to government in 1844.

MODERATE DECADE (1844-1854)

The moderates ruled for a decade. The strong man of this period was General Narváez. In this period a liberal conservative and centralized State consolidated, with the support of the aristocracy, the Church and the conservative bourgeoisie.

A new Constitution was written in 1845: sovereignty was shared between the monarch and the people and the State identified with Catholic religion. All the State, except from the Basque Provinces and Navarre, was submitted to the same laws. Tax collection was improved, a Criminal Code was approved... Continue reading "Isabella II: Reign, Politics, and Downfall" »

Key European Alliances (1879-1914)

• 1879 – Dual Alliance

  Germany and Austria-Hungary formed this alliance to protect themselves from Russia.

• 1882 – Triple Alliance

  Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy formed this alliance to prevent Italy from aligning with Russia.

• 1894 – Franco-Russian Alliance

  Russia and France allied to protect against Germany and Austria-Hungary.

• 1904 – The Entente Cordiale

  An agreement between Britain and France, recognizing colonial possessions and reducing tensions.

• 1907 – The Anglo-Russian Entente

  An agreement between Britain and Russia regarding spheres of influence in Asia.

• 1907 – The Triple Entente

  Formed by the previous agreements, uniting France, Britain, and Russia.

• 1914 – The Triple Entente Agreement

  Members agreed

The French Revolution's Aftermath

Reign of Terror

The wave of rumors and senseless panic that overcame France following the storming of the Bastille in 1789 led to the widespread destruction of manor houses and archives containing the feudal obligations of peasants.

The Napoleonic Wars

Napoleon Bonaparte

He overthrew the French Directory in 1799 and became Emperor of the French in 1804. He failed to defeat Great Britain and abdicated in 1814, returned to power briefly in 1815, but was defeated and died in exile.

Key Terms and Events

Coup d'état

Plebiscite

Concordat

An agreement between the Pope and Napoleon where Napoleon recognized Catholicism as the religion of the majority of France, and the Pope agreed not to ask for the return of any land seized... Continue reading "The Napoleonic Era and Latin American Revolutions" »

Vladimir Lenin and the October Revolution

Lenin was the Bolshevik leader and the main inspirational figure of the October Revolution of 1917. In 1897, he was imprisoned and deported to Siberia for his activities against the tsarist autocracy. After being released in 1900, he went into exile in Switzerland. Following the victory of the February Revolution, he returned to Russia to lead the Bolsheviks' seizure of power. He ruled the USSR until his death in 1924.

The Fall of the Tsarist Regime

The fall of the tsarist regime occurred due to the military disaster of Russia in the Great War and because of the misery and famine that most of the population suffered.

The Provisional Government and Social Unrest

The Tsar's regime was replaced by a republic... Continue reading "Vladimir Lenin and the Russian Revolution History" »

Political Shifts in 19th-Century Spain

Stability was achieved in Spain, and the peseta became the country’s official currency. In December 1874, another military uprising occurred. This brought the restoration of the monarchy, the return of the Bourbon dynasty, and the end of the First Republic.

North America: Expansion and Conflict

In North America, the United States consolidated itself as a sovereign nation and established its definitive borders. The arrival of many immigrants from Europe encouraged the United States to expand westwards and reach the Pacific coast. This expansion led to conflicts and wars with Native Americans, which resulted in the destruction of many tribes.

The northern states were hostile towards slavery, which still existed... Continue reading "19th Century Political Transformations in Spain and America" »