Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Victorianism: A Period of Transition (1840–1880)

The Victorian era (1840–1880) was characterized by profound doubts, significant changes, and hesitation. It was a period of great movement, connecting the old world with the new, the ancien régime with modernity, serving as a crucial transition toward the modernity of the 20th century.

Key Features Shaping Victorian Criticism

1. Growth of Literacy

   A large segment of the population gained the ability to read and write English. In 1807, a bill providing universal education was defeated by the British Parliament because the Napoleonic Wars introduced revolutionary ideas, and Parliament feared the English populace reading them. The bill was eventually passed in 1877.

2. Weakening of Religious Dogma

   Religious

The Rise of Basque Nationalism

Early Influences and Ideological Roots

The text explores the emergence of Basque nationalism, highlighting its connection to Carlism and the Catalan model. The Carlist motto, "God, King, and Fueros," resonated with Basque nationalism's emphasis on religion and fueros (traditional rights and privileges). Sabino Arana, a key figure in Basque nationalism, drew inspiration from the Catalan model during his studies in Barcelona.

Characteristics of Basque Identity

The author emphasizes the distinct characteristics of the Basque people, including their unique race, language, religion, traditions, and way of life. These characteristics, particularly the strong sense of cultural identity, fueled the movement for autonomy.... Continue reading "Basque Nationalism: Origins, Ideology, and Evolution" »

Major EU Treaties and Programs

Treaty of Paris (1951): established the European Coal and Steel Community. Treaty of Rome (1957): it constituted the European Economic Community, or Common Market, whose main objectives were the free movement of people, goods, services and capital and the Customs Union. Treaty on European Union (Maastricht Treaty, 1992): created the European Union and established economic and monetary union, common foreign and security policies, and cooperation in judicial and domestic matters. Creation of the euro (1999): the single currency came into circulation in 2002 in the majority of EU countries. Treaty of Lisbon (2007): it gave greater power to the European Parliament and allows for more participation of national parliaments... Continue reading "EU Treaties, Funds and Citizenship: Key Milestones" »

Understanding New Criticism

New Criticism is a significant critical movement characterized by renewal and innovation. It has two main branches:

• The British branch, known as Practical Criticism.
• The American branch, called New Criticism.

Originating in England in the 1920s, New Criticism reached America, where it found fertile ground for growth. It significantly influenced the study of literature and poetry in Western countries.

At the beginning of the 20th century, American critics were captivated by European, particularly British, art and culture. They experienced a sense of cultural inferiority, feeling limited to European or Native American traditions.

New Criticism's influence is undeniable; one must either oppose it or align with it. It is impossible... Continue reading "Understanding New Criticism: Origins and Impact" »

Saint-Simon's Social Critique

Saint-Simon did not develop an idea of a future perfect world, but proceeded to radically criticize the society resulting from the French Revolution. In this context, he felt that governments should aim for improving the moral and material conditions of the working class, and ending poverty and war, but exercising less and less government (understood as despotism) and more administration.

Not opposed to private property, he suggested deleting the inheritance. The State should undertake great public works for the benefit of the society: railways, dams, bridges, communication channels, credit unions, etc.

Challenges for Utopian Communities

The main obstacle to the creation and consolidation of utopian communities was... Continue reading "Socialist Thought: Saint-Simon, Marxism, and Early Labor Movements" »

International Situation

In Europe, the United Kingdom remained the primary power, while Germany emerged as the second most significant economic force. Simultaneously, the Austro-Hungarian, Russian, and Ottoman Empires were in decline. Outside of Europe, the United States completed its westward expansion and rapidly industrialized.

Alliances and the Armed Peace

This period was known as Peace Through Strength (Paz Armada). While European nations were technically at peace, they were heavily rearming for potential conflict. These tensions led to the formation of two major blocks:

• Triple Entente
• Triple Alliance

The Second Industrial Revolution

Beginning in the United States and Germany, this era was defined by new energy sources, specifically oil and electricity.... Continue reading "The Second Industrial Revolution and Global Imperialism" »

The Triumph of Capitalism: The Industrial Revolution

Capitalism emerged as a new economic system, built upon economic liberalism and private ownership. Its most important proponent was Adam Smith.

Capitalism: An economic system where industry and business are privately owned and operated for profit.

The Growth of Finance

Industrialization spurred the development of finance. Banks were created to facilitate payments and relations between companies, suppliers, and consumers. Public limited companies, also known as joint-stock companies, emerged, allowing for multiple owners.

Competing Ideologies

Marxism (1864)

Leaders: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. A radical form of socialism advocating for a revolution to overthrow capitalism.

Anarchism (1864)

Leaders:... Continue reading "The Industrial Revolution: Capitalism's Rise and Societal Shifts in 19th Century Spain" »

Fandoms: From Passive Consumers to Active Producers

Question 4: Fandoms (Henry Jenkins, Pierre Bourdieu...)

To appropriately answer this question, one must deal with the definition of 'fan'. The term is an abbreviation of 'fanatic' and comes from the Latin word 'fanaticus', which has religious connotations and refers to devotees. It has negative connotations in society. Henry Jenkins, an American media scholar and lecturer of the second half of the 20th century, deals with different phenomena related to the fan in his book Textual Poachers: Television Fans and Participatory Culture (1992). He rejects fan stereotypes such as the comic, nerdy fan, the psychotic fan, and the eroticized fan. Moreover, he expresses the fan as a defensible position... Continue reading "Fan Studies: From Consumers to Active Producers" »

International Organizations and European Integration: Essential Facts

Most Important Treaties for European Integration

The following treaties allowed for the gradual deepening of the European integration process:

• Treaty of Paris (1952): Established the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).
• Treaties of Rome (1957): Established the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom).
• Single European Act (1986): Launched the Single Market.
• Maastricht Treaty on European Union (1992): Established the European Union (based on three pillars).
• Treaty of Amsterdam (1997): Authorized further enlargement.
• Treaty of Lisbon (2009): Authorized constitutional changes.

Composition of the European Council and its President

The European... Continue reading "Key Concepts in International Organizations and European Integration" »

1. Definition of the WTO

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international organization that manages the rules of trade between 164 member countries.

2. Core Principles of Trade

• Non-discrimination: Most-Favored-Nation (MFN) and National Treatment (NT).
• Free trade negotiations.
• Predictability and transparency.
• Fair competition.
• Economic reform and development.

3. Primary Functions

• Administering trade agreements.
• Providing a forum for negotiations.
• Offering technical assistance and training.
• Cooperating with other international organizations.
• Monitoring national trade policies.
• Handling trade disputes.

4. GATT and Trade Agreements

The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) covers various sectors and measures, including:

• Agriculture and textiles.
• Investment