Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Chapter 6: Consciousness

Consciousness: a person's awareness of him/herself and his/her environment.

Planning Function

Helps you to inhibit urges we have that are not moral, ethical, or practical. Evaluates our thoughts before we act.

Levels of Consciousness

• Altered State of Consciousness: Bizarre, disorganized, or dream-like patterns.
• Minimal Consciousness: Fragmented connection between self; we might respond without being aware of it at a more thoughtful level.
• Full Consciousness: The awareness of the environment and awareness of mental state, giving information.
• Self-Consciousness: Focus on us.

Sleep Stages

1. Doesn't last very long (10 min).
2. Lasts a bit longer (20 min).
3. The most vivid dreams.
4. One of the most important (walking, seems real...).
5. Almost waking

... Continue reading "Understanding Consciousness, Sleep, and Conditioning" »

Understanding Behaviors to Predict Performance and Enhance Effectiveness

Replacing Intuition with Systematic Study

Attribute causes and effects, draw conclusions based on scientific evidence: provide a means to predict behaviors.

Evidence-Based Management (EBM)

Managerial decisions based on scientific evidence.

Relevant Disciplines

Psychology (human behaviors)
Social Psychology (people's influence on one another in groups)
Sociology (social environment and culture/group behaviors)
Anthropology (study of societies)

Management Functions

Planning (goals, strategy)
Controlling (monitoring)
Organizing (what, who, how)
Leading (motivating, directing)

Mintzberg's Managerial Roles

1. Interpersonal

Figurehead, leader, liaison

2. Informational

Monitor, disseminator, spokesperson

3.

... Continue reading "Understanding Organizational Behavior" »

Motivation

Types of Motivation

There are two main types of motivation:

• Intrinsic Motivation: This stems from personal factors. Different approaches to intrinsic motivation include:

1. Humanistic approaches
2. Cognitive approaches
3. Social cognitive theories
4. Sociocultural conceptions

Extrinsic Motivation: This comes from environmental factors. Different approaches to extrinsic motivation include:

1. Behavioral approaches
2. Social cognitive theories

Strategies to Motivate Students

• Extrinsic: Leaderboards, gold stars, and punishments.
• Intrinsic: Self-knowledge, love, and passion.

Setting challenging yet realistic goals is crucial for student motivation. Strategies to increase motivation include:

• Building positive relationships with students
• Providing regular feedback on

... Continue reading "Motivating Students in Blended Learning Environments" »

The Spiral of Silence

The phrase "spiral of silence" describes how people tend to remain silent when they believe their views are in the minority. This silence stems from a fear of social isolation. People understand which behaviors might lead to isolation and are hesitant to express minority opinions to avoid it. The closer a person perceives their opinion to be to the prevailing public opinion, the more willing they are to express it publicly. Conversely, if public sentiment shifts away from their view, they become less likely to voice it.

Polls vs. Surveys

While both gather information, polls and surveys differ in scope. A poll typically poses a single multiple-choice question, with predefined answers. Participants may select one or multiple... Continue reading "The Spiral of Silence and Public Opinion" »

OBJECTIVES OF ADOLESCENCE 
    To develop emotional and cognitive abilities. Young humans have access to abstract thinking and reflexive knowledge. 
    To build a personal identity, integrating and accepting their body image, have expectations and future projects. This includes accepting puberty’s physical changes, redefining familiar relationships, achieve emotional independence and a sexual identity. 
    To acquire new social abilities (relations with other classmates and adults), an autonomous moral, new interpersonal relationships (couple relationships) and exercising a studying or working role. 

PSYCHOLOGICAL CHANGES:
   It reaffirms the Ego. Individuals take conscience of themselves and acquire more emotional control. This... Continue reading "Human performance " »

Values and Modernization – Conceptual Framework Modernization theory builds on a long tradition stressing the Potential and extent of human progress. Generalized expectation that socio-economic modernization Effects value change. Enlightment: Science and reason set individuals free Marx: Technological change and capitalism makes Communism possible Smith: Technology is a source of wellbeing Postwar theorists: Some values favor economic progress While other ones not (e.G. Parsons) Nevertheless, classic modernization theory underspecifies (a) Mechanims and (b) types of values brought by modernization. Inglehart and central social theorists consider that economic Change is the main source of value change in modern societies. Values differ much... Continue reading "Human relation theory was an improvement scientific management theory of organigation" »

Qualitative Research

Collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data by observing what people do and say. It refers to the meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and description of things. Qualitative research is subjective and uses various methods of collecting information, including individual in-depth interviews and focus groups. The nature of this research is exploratory and open-ended.

Nacirema

A term used in anthropology and sociology in relation to aspects of the behavior and society of citizens of the USA. It encourages a deliberate sense of self-distancing so that American anthropologists might look at their own culture more objectively. Think of yourself as an alien; if you came to Earth today, would you think

... Continue reading "Qualitative Research Methods and Concepts: A Comprehensive Summary" »

FREUD

·Oral: sucking and feeding

·Anal: focus of pleasure and toilet training

·Phallic: penis is the most important body part

·Latency: sexual need is acquired

·Genital: genital attention and sexual stimulation

·Adulthood: Continuation of all stages

ERICKSON family/culture

Developmental crisis

·Trust vs. Mistrust: being help, cared

·Autonomy vs. Shame: become self sufficient

·Initiative vs. Guilt: undertake adult activities

·Industry vs. Inferiority: master new skills

·Identity vs. Role confusion: development self-sense

·Intimacy vs. Isolation: develop relationships

·Generativity vs. Stagnation: contribute to the Future generations

·Integrity vs. Despair: make sense of your life

PIAGET

·Sensorimotor: use the sense and motor skills to Understand... Continue reading "essay" »

History is a term that relates to past events as well as the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about these events. The term includes cosmic, geologic, and organic history, but it often generically implies human history. History can also refer to the academic discipline which uses a narrative to examine and analyze a sequence of past events and objectively determine the patterns of cause and effect that determine them.

Historiography

Historiography is the writing of history, especially the writing of history based on the critical examination of sources, the selection of particular details from authentic materials in those sources, and the synthesis of those details into a narrative that stands the test of critical

... Continue reading "History and Historiography" »

Understanding Reliability

Reliability refers to the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results. It focuses on the consistency of the assessment.

• Interrater Reliability: Assesses whether different observers are consistent in their judgments.
• Test-Retest Reliability: Evaluates the consistency of a test across different administrations over time.
• Parallel Forms Reliability: Compares two different versions of a test that measure the same construct with different, but equivalent, questions.
• Internal Consistency Reliability: Measures the consistency of results across items within a single test. This can be assessed through:
  • Average Inter-Item Correlation: Calculates the average of all correlation coefficients between individual

... Continue reading "Assessment Reliability and Validity: Key Concepts" »