Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Psychology and Sociology

Understanding Reliability

Reliability refers to the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results. It focuses on the consistency of the assessment.

• Interrater Reliability: Assesses whether different observers are consistent in their judgments.
• Test-Retest Reliability: Evaluates the consistency of a test across different administrations over time.
• Parallel Forms Reliability: Compares two different versions of a test that measure the same construct with different, but equivalent, questions.
• Internal Consistency Reliability: Measures the consistency of results across items within a single test. This can be assessed through:
  • Average Inter-Item Correlation: Calculates the average of all correlation coefficients between individual

Discuss factors influencing conformity

Intro:

Conformity = change of behavior as a result of real or imagined group pressure or norms

• Social identity theory
• Cultural dimensions
• Self-esteem
• Unanimity
• Group size
• Private vs Public responses

Asch

• Aim: To test the extent of conformity in a non-ambiguous task

• Method:

  • 1 real subject among 7 confederates
  • They were asked which of the 3 lines on the right corresponded to the line presented on the left
  • Confederates of the study were told to give incorrect answers
  • Separate condition → participant was told to write down their answers individually
  • In another part of the experiment → subject was given a supporting confederate

• Results:

  • 32% conformity rate
  • 74% of subjects conformed at least once
  • Supporting confederate →

Metastasizing Crisis - Occurs When a Small, Isolated Incident is Not Contained and Begins to Spread

Definitions of Crisis -

• A crisis arises from a traumatic event that is unpredictable and uncontrollable.
• Crisis is a crisis because the individual knows no response to deal with a situation.
• Crisis is a personal difficulty or situation that immobilizes people and prevents them from consciously controlling their lives.
• Crisis is a state of disorganization in which people face frustration of important life goals or profound disruption of their life cycles and methods of coping with stressors. The term crisis usually refers to a person’s feelings of fear, shock, and distress about the disruption, not to the disruption itself.
• Crisis is a temporary breakdown

Child Psychology: Chapter 6 Study Guide

Piaget’s Theory

Basic Principles of Piaget’s Theory

• Assimilation
• Accommodation
• Equilibration

Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor Stage (Birth-2 Years)

• Adapting to and Exploring the Environment
• Understanding Objects
• Using Symbols

Preoperational Stage (2-7 Years)

• Egocentrism
• Animism
• Centration

Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 Years)

• Mental Operations
• Reversibility
• Can Solve Conservation Tasks

Formal Operational Stage (11+ Years)

• Hypothetical Thinking
• Deductive Reasoning

Piaget’s Contributions to Child Development

• The Study of Cognitive Development
• A New View of Children
• Fascinating Discoveries

Educational Applications of Piaget’s Theory

• Facilitate Rather Than Direct Children’s Learning
• Recognize Individual Differences

Sensation and Perception

Sensation: Receiving stimuli.

Perception: Understanding stimuli.

Selective attention: Focusing on a specific aspect of experience.

Selective perception: Recalling only circumstances that confirm our beliefs.

Cognitive Frameworks

Paradigms (Frames): Theoretical frameworks.

Paradigm shift: Change in the overriding theoretical framework.

Neuroplasticity: Brain's capacity to change based on experience.

Functional fixedness: Getting locked into one way of thinking.

Determinism vs. Free Will

Determinism: Belief in being governed by external forces (biological, Freudian, behavioral).

Free will: Belief in being a result of choices made.

• Internal locus of control: Taking responsibility.
• External locus of control: Blaming others.

Self-Talk

Discuss two errors in attributions

Intro:

Attribution = “Correspondence inference theory” = tendency to take someone’s immediate behaviour as a general statement about who that person is

(consider situational as a person's disposition)

Choose 2 to discuss:

1.Fundamental attribution error

- tendency to overestimate the extent to which a person's behavior is due to internal, dispositional factors + underestimate the role of situational factors

2.Self serving bias

- explanations for one's own successes that credit internal, dispositional factors and explanations for one's failures that blame external, situational factors

3.Defensive attribution

- Tendency to blame the victim for their misfortunes

Ross et al. → FAE

• Aim: To see if student participants

How to Improve Low Self-Esteem

1. Supportive Environment

• Show concern for personal problems, interests, status, and contributions.

2. Tailored Work

• Offer work that suits the employee's values, skills, and abilities.

3. Supervisor-Employee Cohesion

• Strive for supervisor-employee cohesiveness and build trust.

4. Self-Management

• Have faith in each employee's self-management ability.

Six Important Elements of Self-Esteem

1. Live Consciously

• Focus on everything you do and who you are doing it with.

2. Self-Acceptance

• Don't judge yourself on every action.

3. Personal Responsibility

• Take action and responsibility for your actions.

4. Self-Assertiveness

• Be original and positive.

5. Live Purposefully

6. Personal Integrity

• Have an honest personality.

The Big Five Personality

Schmidt’s Noticing Hypothesis (Explicit Learning)

Role of Attention and Awareness

Schmidt's Noticing Hypothesis posits that learners must consciously pay attention to and be aware of linguistic input to acquire a second language (L2). This contrasts with implicit learning theories, which suggest that language acquisition can occur subconsciously.

Intake refers to the portion of input that learners successfully process and integrate into their L2 knowledge. Attention plays a crucial role in selecting intake by:

• Heightening the activation level of input in working memory, allowing it to remain available for further processing.
• Facilitating the transfer of information to long-term memory.

Long-Term Memory Functions

Long-term memory serves two primary... Continue reading "Schmidt's Noticing Hypothesis in Second Language Acquisition" »