Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Psychology and Sociology

Metastasizing Crisis - Occurs When a Small, Isolated Incident is Not Contained and Begins to Spread

Definitions of Crisis -

• A crisis arises from a traumatic event that is unpredictable and uncontrollable.
• Crisis is a crisis because the individual knows no response to deal with a situation.
• Crisis is a personal difficulty or situation that immobilizes people and prevents them from consciously controlling their lives.
• Crisis is a state of disorganization in which people face frustration of important life goals or profound disruption of their life cycles and methods of coping with stressors. The term crisis usually refers to a person’s feelings of fear, shock, and distress about the disruption, not to the disruption itself.
• Crisis is a temporary breakdown

Efficacy: strength of your expectation to be successful. Self efficacy theory: ID to execute a task, efficacy expectations, behavior, outcome

Self competence: belief in ones own competence Self competence theory: 1 experience success-increased compet- increase MO 2 experience failure- decrease comp- decrease MO

Goal setting theory:process goals-performance goals- outcome goals. Goal setting guidelines: specific measurable and observable, identify time constraints, challenging but realistic, short term goals structured to reach long term, consider ID differences.

goal orientations: reason for achievement Goal perspective theory: two goal orientations influence perception of competency. Task oriented goal: mastery ego oriented: out performing others,... Continue reading "Human performance " »

Discuss two errors in attributions

Intro:

Attribution = “Correspondence inference theory” = tendency to take someone’s immediate behaviour as a general statement about who that person is

(consider situational as a person's disposition)

Choose 2 to discuss:

1.Fundamental attribution error

- tendency to overestimate the extent to which a person's behavior is due to internal, dispositional factors + underestimate the role of situational factors

2.Self serving bias

- explanations for one's own successes that credit internal, dispositional factors and explanations for one's failures that blame external, situational factors

3.Defensive attribution

- Tendency to blame the victim for their misfortunes

Ross et al. → FAE

• Aim: To see if student participants

How to Improve Low Self-Esteem

1. Supportive Environment

• Show concern for personal problems, interests, status, and contributions.

2. Tailored Work

• Offer work that suits the employee's values, skills, and abilities.

3. Supervisor-Employee Cohesion

• Strive for supervisor-employee cohesiveness and build trust.

4. Self-Management

• Have faith in each employee's self-management ability.

Six Important Elements of Self-Esteem

1. Live Consciously

• Focus on everything you do and who you are doing it with.

2. Self-Acceptance

• Don't judge yourself on every action.

3. Personal Responsibility

• Take action and responsibility for your actions.

4. Self-Assertiveness

• Be original and positive.

5. Live Purposefully

6. Personal Integrity

• Have an honest personality.

The Big Five Personality

Schmidt’s Noticing Hypothesis (Explicit Learning)

Role of Attention and Awareness

Schmidt's Noticing Hypothesis posits that learners must consciously pay attention to and be aware of linguistic input to acquire a second language (L2). This contrasts with implicit learning theories, which suggest that language acquisition can occur subconsciously.

Intake refers to the portion of input that learners successfully process and integrate into their L2 knowledge. Attention plays a crucial role in selecting intake by:

• Heightening the activation level of input in working memory, allowing it to remain available for further processing.
• Facilitating the transfer of information to long-term memory.

Long-Term Memory Functions

Long-term memory serves two primary... Continue reading "Schmidt's Noticing Hypothesis in Second Language Acquisition" »

Expectancy Theory:

Expectancy Theory: is the idea that people's actions are driven by expected consequences. Behavior based on Vroom’s theory results from conscious choices to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. 1 Effort = Performance Relationship = Expectancy (Resources, Training or Supervision) 2 Performance = Outcome Relationship = Instrumentality (Promise must be fulfilled) 3 Outcome = Personal Goals Relationship = Valence (Money, Promotion, Benefits)

Equity Theory:

Equity Theory: is the idea that individuals are motivated by fairness. Negative and Positive Inequity feelings revolve around a person’s perception of rewards and inputs. People compare themselves with others on a similar level. Negative inequity is perceived if a comparison... Continue reading "Understanding Motivation Theories and Team Development Stages" »

Chapter 1-7

Baseline: the period of an experiment without the treatment.

Behavior: anything that a person does.

• This implies that the activity is physical.
• This includes obvious, subtle, internal and private events.

Behavior analysis: the study of environmental events that change behavior.

• The founder of behavior analysis is Skinner.
• Behavior analysis exploded in popularity in 1970.
• Behavior analysis studies thoughts and feelings as behavior.
• Behavior analysis sees most behavior as voluntary behavior.

Behavioral definition: a statement that specifies exactly what behavior to observe.

• Creating a behavioral definition is the first step in studying behavior.
• It makes communication clearer; it maintains consistency of observations.

Behavioral strategy: the... Continue reading "Behavior Analysis and Strategies: A Comprehensive Guide" »

Ecocriticism: A Multidisciplinary Approach

Ecocriticism is an interdisciplinary field that examines the relationship between literature and the environment. Scholars analyze texts that illustrate environmental concerns and explore how literature treats nature.

Core Concepts

• Ecology: The biological study of interactions between organisms and their physical environment.
• Domestic vs. Wild Nature: Domestic nature is customized for human benefit, while wild nature remains untouched by human intervention.
• Biocentrism: An ethical stance that values all life forms equally, regardless of their species.
• Darwism: The theory of biological evolution through natural selection.
• Pioneer Species: Organisms that colonize new environments, shaping their ecosystems and

Chapter 7: Experiencing Positive Emotions

When it comes to flourishing as human beings, what often takes center stage is our ability to feel positive emotions.

One of the core elements of flourishing is the study of positive emotions (PERMA).

Positive Emotions: a wide range of pleasant emotions in the past, present, and future; being able to know what it is to be happy and to experience an enduring sense of well-being.

Two ways of smiling:

- Duchenne smile: a full-face smile where not only your mouth turns up, but the corners of your eyes crinkle, as well. That is, you smile with your eyes as well as your mouth.

- “the other smile”: with the mouth only and does not involve the eyes.

The extent to which the women displayed the Duchenne smile in... Continue reading "Experiencing Positive Emotions and Happiness" »

CONVENTIONS:

practices, behaviours, ideas and styles regarded as normal or taken for granted.

DISCRIMINATION:

treating someone or some group as different or less-than based upon their identity.

DOUBLE STANDARD:

a set of guidelines or principles in which one group of people is treated differently than performing the same or similar behaviour.

EXCLUSIONIST:

the position of excluding someone or some group from a fundamental right or prerogative.

FEMININITY:

socially constructed characteristics or ideas typically associated with the female sex.

FEMINISM:

a philosophy and social movement centered on improving the status and lives of women.

GENDER:

socially constructed characteristics associated with biological sex; ie., feminine, masculine.

HIERARCHICAL:

a system... Continue reading "Understanding Media Representation and Social Issues" »