Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Philosophical Perspectives on Existence and Morality

Thomas Aquinas: Arguments for God's Existence

In his cosmological arguments, Thomas Aquinas presents his explanations for God's existence. His first argument, the Argument from Contingency, posits that everything in our world is dependent on something else for its existence. Therefore, there must be an independent Prime Mover—a first cause—that initiated everything into motion at the beginning of the universe.

Aquinas's fourth argument, the Argument from Gradations of Perfection, suggests that if individuals can judge some things as more perfect than others, then an ultimate source of perfection must exist.

His fifth argument, the Argument from Design, explains that the universe exhibits... Continue reading "Philosophical Debates: Existence, Morality, and Human Nature" »

BEAUTY AND AESTHETICS

What is beauty?: The human capacity to feel something or have sensations. In philosophy, AESTHETICS refers to a particular type of sensations: those related to beauty and ugliness

Philosophers and Beauty

The Greek philosophers believed that beauty is real by itself

Realists think that beauty is part of something else

Modernists believe that beauty is something we create

AESTHETICS-The study of beauty or the philosophy of art

THE AESTHETIC EXPERIENCE-When an encounter with beauty occurs, whether it is the product of nature or art

1. Feeling that time has stopped
2. Lightness in the perception of reality.
3. Forgetting self
4. Symbolic.
5. Ephemeral.
6. Pleasurable

The definition of beauty (according to aesthetics)

1. PERFECTION OF FORM
2. NEATNESS
3. AN ATTRACTIVE

Authority Before the 1500s

Before the 1500s, the final authority on most knowledge was derived from Greek and Roman thinkers and the Bible.

Origins of the Scientific Revolution

In the mid-1500s, attitudes shifted as people began basing their thinking on careful observation and a willingness to question traditional beliefs. Furthermore, European voyages of discovery revealed plants and animals previously unknown to ancient writers.

The Heliocentric Theory

Nicolaus Copernicus developed the heliocentric theory, which posits that the sun is the center of the solar system. This differed from the Church-supported geocentric theory, which claimed the Earth was the center of the universe. Copernicus delayed publishing his work due to fear of religious persecution.... Continue reading "The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment: Key Concepts" »

The Importance of Ethical Values in Society

Values constitute the ethical foundations on which society is built and guide individual and collective actions towards common well-being. These principles, rooted in culture, religion, and philosophy, shape our decisions and interpersonal relationships, as well as our institutions and political systems.

Key examples of fundamental values include:

• Ethics
• Justice
• Solidarity
• Honesty
• Responsibility

These values promote mutual respect, equity, and harmonious coexistence in the community. Additionally, values serve as a moral compass, guiding our choices and actions toward human progress and the pursuit of a more just and sustainable world. In this sense, promoting and defending values becomes a vital task to... Continue reading "Social Foundations: Values, Sports, and Recreation" »

Plato's Forms of Government and Political Hierarchy

True Forms of Government (Rule for the Whole)

• Kingship
• Aristocracy

False Forms of Government (Rule for Themselves)

• Oligarchy
• Tyranny
• Democracy

Plato's Political Hierarchy and Ruling Elements

Plato outlines a hierarchy of political systems, correlating them with the ruling element of the soul:

1. Kingship / Aristocracy: The best form, ruled by philosopher kings (the rational element).
2. Timocracy: The honor-spirited element is ruling. This form is proposed as the balance between the ultimate best and the ultimate worst.
3. Oligarchy: Ruled by necessary appetites (wealth).
4. Democracy: Ruled by unnecessary appetites (excessive freedom).
5. Tyranny: The worst form, ruled by unlawful and unnecessary appetites; it enslaves

Introduction to Metaphysics

Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy which questions reality. Why do things and beings exist? What are they? Where do we come from? Metaphysical doctrines have always been developed to oppose rival doctrines.

Metaphysical categories: unity-plurality, reality-appearance, essence-existence, necessity-contingency, matter-spirit

Metaphysical doctrines: monism-pluralism, essentialism-existentialism, materialism-dualism

The Criteria of Demarcation

The Criteria of Demarcation For science to be considered scientific, criteria were established to distinguish between what is a scientific discipline and what is not. Verificationism and falsificationism propose two different sets of criteria.

Verificationism states that only theories... Continue reading "Metaphysics, Scientific Method, and Cosmology: A Historical Overview" »

Teenagers and Unhealthy Diets

Some teenagers tend to eat unhealthy diets due to a lack of awareness about the consequences. These diets are often the easiest options, primarily because parents don't always educate their children about the potential health risks. Moreover, junk food is often easier to prepare, more affordable, and tends to be tastier. However, tastiness doesn't equate to healthiness. We are constantly bombarded with tempting advertisements for unhealthy food, whether through digital media, television, or even on the street. Think of McDonald's, Burger King, and Telepizza constantly showcasing their appealing yet unhealthy products.

Promoting Healthy Habits

We need collective campaigns to promote both sports and healthy, varied... Continue reading "Teen Diets & Cousin Moha: Health, Humor, and Family Ties" »

Humanism

Humanism was the first cultural movement to develop an anthropocentric worldview. It defended that human beings, their intelligence and their love of knowledge were some of the main concerns of humanists, even though they were at the service of the Christian faith.

Empiricism

Empiricism claimed that we should not accept reasoning that could not be empirically validated through observation and experimentation.

Rationalism

Rationalism stated that the truths established by authority and tradition should be criticised, and that reason was the only valid criterion.

Science

Science is knowledge obtained through observation and reasoning, with a systematic structure from which we deduce general principles and laws that can be verified experimentally.... Continue reading "From Humanism to the Industrial Revolution: Key Movements and Concepts" »

A Virtuous Individual

An individual who I considered to be virtuous is my best friend, Reid Bartholomew. Reid would always look out for everyone around him, friends, and family. The Golden Mean is the midpoint between two extremes, which are known as deficiency and excess. Where the golden mean lies between the vices depends on the situation. For example, courage could be considered the golden mean while cowardice is a deficiency and recklessness is an excess.

In Aristotle’s virtue ethics, he provided three conditions for authentic moral actions.

1. The subject knows well what he is doing. For instance, Reid had planned on completing all his homework for one day so he would have more time to study for his midterms the next day.
2. The subject does

TEMA 6: Vocabulary