Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Hobbes's State of Nature and the Origin of Society

1. The State of Nature

Modern thinkers like Hobbes and Rousseau agree on the possibility of a state of nature without society, diverging from classical and medieval thinkers such as Plato and Aristotle, who believed humans were inherently social. Aristotle famously stated, "For living without society, you need to be a God or a Beast." Even today, some agree with this classical perspective. Hobbes, however, envisioned a state of nature defined by specific human characteristics:

• Selfishness and Instrumental Reason: Reason serves as a tool for selfish pursuits, driven by passions and desires.
• Equality: Despite minor differences in strength or ability, everyone is fundamentally equal because even

Statesmanship and Warcraft

Machiavelli believes that good laws follow naturally from a good military. Machiavelli reverses the conventional understanding of war as a necessary, but not definitive, element of the development of states. Instead, he asserts that successful war is the very foundation upon which all states are built. Much of The Prince is devoted to describing exactly what it means to conduct a good war. But Machiavelli's description of war encompasses more than just the direct use of military force when cities were constantly threatened by neighboring principalities, and the area had suffered through power struggles for many years.

Goodwill and Hatred

To remain in power, a prince must avoid the hatred of his people. It is not necessary... Continue reading "Machiavelli and Mill: Power, Liberty, and Human Nature" »

1. Justice and the Principle of Utility

Why is Justice a Problem for Utilitarianism?

The Principle of Utility often faces challenges regarding justice. One perspective suggests that it is acceptable for inequalities to develop if they meet two conditions:

1. They contribute to the overall good in the long run.
2. They can be achieved by anyone (fair opportunity).

4. Moral Issues Raised by Computers

Defining Analogical Reasoning in Ethics

Analogical reasoning serves as a crucial tool for comparing known moral baselines to situations where the morality is uncertain. By comparing similar cases that the observer already understands, conclusions can be drawn about a new, relatively similar topic.

Are Computer Ethics Truly New?

(See also Section 9 for further discussion... Continue reading "Key Ethical Concepts: Justice, Corporate Responsibility, and Software IP" »

Understanding Causation in Tort Law

Causation focuses on whether the defendant's (D) carelessness caused the claimant's (C) injury.

The Two Tiers of Causation

• Factual Causation
• Legal Causation

Factual Causation and the 'But For' Test

The link between the defendant's breach and the claimant's loss is known as the 'but for' test. The question is: 'But for' the defendant's actions, would the claimant have suffered the injury or loss?

Case Study: Cork v Kirby MacLean

Denning LJ stated: "If you can say the damage would not have happened but for a particular fault, then the fault is the cause of the damage. But if you say the damage would have happened the same way, fault or not, the fault is not a cause of the damage."

Multiple Tortfeasors

Fairchild v Glenhaven

Plato

Was a disciple of Socrates whose cornerstone of thought was his theory of Forms, in which there was another world of perfection. Uses thought to advance the Socratic dialogue. Dualistic Vision

Aristotle

Greek philosopher. A student of Plato, the tutor of Alexander the Great, and the author of works on logic, metaphysics, ethics, natural sciences, politics, and poetics, theory follows empirical observation and logic, based on the syllogism, is the essential method of rational inquiry. Pluralistic Vision

Socrates

Greek philosopher; Socratic method--questioning; sentenced to death for corrupting Athens youth

Alexander the Great

Student of Aristotle, King of Macedonia who conquered Greece, Egypt, and Persia

Academy

school of philosophy founded by... Continue reading "Plato vs. Aristotle: Philosophy, Society, and Human Nature" »

Overcoming Doubt and Establishing Reality

To overcome doubt and demonstrate the proper functioning of reason and the existence of an external reality, we must establish a foundation as evident as the ideas we think. Hence, it is necessary to employ a rigorous deductive system.

The Three Kinds of Ideas

In his initial analysis, Descartes distinguishes between three types of ideas:

• Adventitious Ideas: Those that seem to come from our external experience (e.g., dogs, trees, colors). We use the word seem because we cannot yet confirm if these objects truly exist.
• Factitious Ideas: Those constructed by the mind from other ideas (e.g., the concept of a siren).
• Innate Ideas: Ideas that are not acquired through experience or constructed by the mind, but are

1. The Apology of Socrates: Historical Context

• 1. During which period of his life did Plato write The Apology of Socrates? A: His youth.
• 2. How does the Apology begin? A: It begins with a greeting to the Athenians.
• 3. Does Socrates show enthusiasm against the Sophists in the Apology? A: Yes, he casts off the sophistic movement.
• 4. Who defended the accused in Athenian trials during the Age of Socrates? A: The accused defended themselves.
• 5. How many people constituted the tribunal that decided Socrates' fate? A: 500.
• 6. How soon was the sentence to be delivered? A: Within 24 hours.
• 7. Where was the parliament located in the time of Socrates? A: The parliament stood in the Agora.
• 8. Diogenes Laertius notes that Socrates was known for his intense debating

Determinism and the Concept of Freedom

According to determinism, everything that happens is determined by prior causes. To say that A determines B is to say that A causes B (given A, B must follow). Determinism holds that every event is the necessary result of the chain of causes leading up to it, a chain that runs back into the past. One implication of this view is that all future states of the universe are completely predictable.

The principle that every event is caused is known as the causal principle. It is presupposed in science and also in everyday life. Most of the astonishing progress science has made over the past four centuries has been made on the basis of a mechanistic and deterministic view of the world. If determinism is right,... Continue reading "Determinism, Materialism, and the Nature of Free Will" »

1. Definitions

• Curse: A formula or charm intended to cause misfortune to another.
• Gift: A special natural ability, capacity, or talent.
• Double-edged sword: Something that causes both advantages and problems.
• To stack shelves: To arrange products in a pile on a shelf.
• Nursery: A school for little children.

2. Personality Traits

• Tactful: Someone who is very careful in the way they speak and behave so they do not make others unhappy.
• Tight-fisted: Not generous with money.
• Broad-minded: Someone who accepts many different types of behavior and is not easily shocked.
• Insecure: The opposite of being self-confident.
• Pushy: Ambitious in a negative way.
• Stubborn: Determined in a way that others may perceive negatively.
• Immature: Acting like a child despite being

According to Marxist theory, the mode of production determines the structure of society. The capitalist mode, based on the private ownership of the means of production, divides society into two antagonistic classes: the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. The nature and structure of any society are defined by the prevailing mode of production. A change in this mode of production also transforms the entire social system, including its ideas and institutions. Such a change in the mode of production constitutes a revolution.

Karl Marx analyzed the evolution of the production process across various historical societies, demonstrating how it has changed throughout history depending on the mode of production in each period. He identified two key levels:... Continue reading "Marxist Theory: Production, Class, and Ideology" »