Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Descartes and the Challenge of Modernity

Descartes faces the challenge of modernity by trying to unify the fundamental knowledge of science and philosophy.

This unification is achieved through mathematical expression that is intuitive rather than deductive.

The method revolves around the self, which becomes the center of philosophy in two ways:

• The self is the beginning of the method.
• The self is the certainty of that knowledge and shares the great theme of modern philosophy, as opposed to medieval philosophy, in which God and the world were the key issues.

By focusing on self-philosophical inquiry, Descartes comes to idealism. Idealism posits that we cannot know reality directly but indirectly through ideas. It is divided into:

• Rationalists: Ideas

Are Robots Superior to Humans?

We are all fascinated by machines made of inorganic matter. Isaac Asimov's (1920-1992) classic book, I, Robot, illustrates the profound influence robots have on a civilization that becomes entirely dependent on them.

The Three Laws of Robotics

In Asimov's novel, robots are programmed to follow three immutable laws:

• First Law: A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.
• Second Law: A robot must obey the orders given to it by human beings, except where such orders would conflict with the First Law.
• Third Law: A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Law.

The Perfection of Logic

The primary appeal of the... Continue reading "Isaac Asimov's I, Robot: The Philosophy of Robotics" »

The Hegelian Dialectic

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel developed a doctrine of great depth and significance to the history of philosophy. His work, considered the last great philosophical system, synthesized almost all previous theories. His thought marked the culmination of modern philosophy and served as the starting point for contemporary discourse, which is largely a response to Hegel from various perspectives.

The Core of Hegelian Philosophy

The core of Hegelian philosophy is the discovery of a method that suggests the absolute: the dialectic. For Hegel, this method is synonymous with consciousness or thought. He posits that the "Idea" is everything, representing the most radical expression of idealism, which denies the existence of the Kantian... Continue reading "Understanding Hegel's Dialectic: Logic and Reality" »

Descartes' Philosophy

The Existence of the World

To address the existence of the physical world, Descartes examines the ideas of sensible things. Given our natural inclination to believe these ideas originate from the sensible world, and considering God's non-deceptive nature, Descartes concludes that this inclination is truthful. Therefore, sensible things exist extramentally, guaranteed by God's veracity. However, only what is clearly and distinctly perceived—extension, movement, and shape (primary qualities)—holds true external existence. Other qualities like sound, color, and taste (secondary qualities) are subjective, existing only within the perceiver. This aligns with Galileo's distinction between primary and secondary qualities.

Anthropological

The Essence of Romantic Relationships

People commonly ask: "Why get involved in a romantic relationship? What benefits do they offer?" These are crucial questions when faced with the decision of getting involved with someone.

The Foundation of Lasting Love: Friendship

Friendship is the bedrock that makes love endure. The camaraderie brings two people closer together. A romantic partner is someone in whom to confide, and with whom to share life's great problems. They are there to console and comfort in hours of need. When a couple starts out as friends, they build a stronger alliance, which is often why romance blossoms from friendship.

The Importance of Courtship and Appreciation

Courtship plays a vital role in romantic relationships. Partners need... Continue reading "The Dynamics of Lasting Romantic Relationships" »

Philosophy: means love of wisdom from the greek words philia and sophia.

Ethics: the study of morality and what is goos, bad, right and worng human conduct and behavior in a moral sense.

Morality: means what is good or right.

Good or right: should involve pleasure, happiness, and excellence and also lead to harmony and creativity.

Bad or wrong: will involve pain, unhapiness, and lack of excellence and will lead to disharmony and lack of creativity.

Hedonism: the view of what is good traditionally

Excellence: is an important addition to pleasure or satisfaction in that it makes experiences or activities better or worse than they would otherwise be.

Amoral: means having no moral sense or being indifferent to right and wrong.

Nonmoral: means out of the... Continue reading "Tax law is a branch of public law" »

Symbolism in Literature

Symbolism in literature was a complex movement that extended the evocative power of words to express the feelings, sensations, and states of mind that lie beyond everyday awareness.

Charles Baudelaire and Open-Ended Symbols

Charles Baudelaire created open-ended symbols. He brought the invisible into being through the visible and linked the invisible through other sensory perceptions, notably smell and sound.

A symbol is a keyhole to a different world, giving way to ambitions.

Poets focused on their inner life. They explored strange cults and countries. They wrote in allusive, enigmatic, musical, and ambiguous styles.

W.B. Yeats (1865-1939) and Irish Literature

W.B. Yeats (1865-1939) - Irish literature

• On Baile's Strand (1903)

Aristotelian Teleology vs. Kantian Deontology

Aristotle is considered a teleological philosopher because he states that, with respect to the good, it isn't merely a disposition. Something is good if it performs its proper function.

Kant is considered a deontological philosopher because he stated that to act in a morally right way, people must act from duty, and that a good will is still good even if one fails to achieve its intended outcome.

Defining Virtue: The Golden Mean

Virtue is defined as a mean between two extremes of excess and defect in regard to a feeling or action, as a practically wise person would determine it. This mean is relative to the individual's circumstances.

Understanding Key Social Liberation Movements

Feminism

Feminism began... Continue reading "Foundations of Ethics and Social Justice Movements" »

Business Glossary

• Board: The group of directors elected by the shareholders to manage a company.
• Budget: An account of probable future income and expenditure during a fixed period.
• Compensation: Payment, including salary and other incentives like stock options.
• Contract: A document setting out an agreement between two or more parties.
• Damages: An amount of money paid to a person who has suffered an injustice.
• Legal action: Using the law to defend one's rights.
• Pay: Money earned by an employee as a salary or wage.
• Pension: A regular payment made to a person after they have retired from active work.
• Reward: To give a payment for services performed or for excellent work or behavior.
• Salary: An amount of money paid every month to an employee in exchange

Ortega y Gasset's Philosophy

Bridging Reason and Life

In "The Theme of Our Time," Ortega y Gasset seeks to reconcile the Western tradition of reason with the concept of life. This work marks the mature stage of his thought, known as ratio-vitalism. The final chapter, "The Doctrine of View," argues that every individual, group, and generation arrives at truth through their unique perspective. The totality of these perspectives constitutes the whole truth, built and revealed throughout history.

Three Stages of Thought

Ortega y Gasset's thought evolves through three stages: objectivist, perspectival, and ratio-vitalist.

1. Objectivism

Initially, he believed in the possibility of attaining objective truth.

2. Perspectivism

This stage, represented by works... Continue reading "Ortega y Gasset's Philosophy of Perspectivism and Ratio-Vitalism" »