Principles of Inductive and Causal Reasoning

Fundamentals of Inductive Reasoning

• To establish matters of fact, one must rely on reasoning that is inductive.
• Inductive reasoning provides the starting points for reasoning.
• In inductive reasoning, the relationship between premises and conclusion is not one of logical necessity.
• The claim of certainty is not made.
• The terms "valid" and "invalid" do not apply to these arguments.
• It is a truth that is established as a consequence of the relations of the concepts involved.
• One must rely on arguments that support their conclusions only as probable or probably true.

Analogy and Analogical Arguments

• The most common type of inductive argument relies on analogy.
• Their conclusions are not claimed to follow from their premises with logical necessity.
• It is possible that although the premises are true, the conclusion may be false.
• These are not classified as valid or invalid; probability is all that is claimed.
• Analogy can be used non-argumentatively for the purpose of lively description.
• It can also be used in explanation by comparing something unfamiliar with something familiar that has certain similarities.
• Uses as description and explanation are not the same as in an argument.

Key Definitions in Analogical Reasoning

• Analogy: A parallel drawn between two or more entities by indicating one or more respects in which they are similar.
• Analogical Argument: A kind of inductive argument in which, from the fact that two entities are alike in some respect, it is concluded that they are also alike in some other respect.

Evaluating Analogical Arguments

• Analogical arguments are evaluated as better or worse depending on the degree of probability with which, relying on the premises they put forward, their conclusions may be affirmed.
• Six criteria may be distinguished to appraise their strength.
• Refer to the handout sheet for further details.

Causal Reasoning and Conditions

• Causal Reasoning: A process where some effect is inferred from what is assumed to be its cause, or some cause is inferred from what is assumed to be its effect.
• Events take place under certain conditions, which are either necessary or sufficient.
• Necessary Condition: A circumstance in whose absence a given event cannot occur.
• Sufficient Condition: A circumstance whose presence ensures the occurrence of a given event.
• Remote Cause: In a chain of cause and effect, an event distant from the effect for which explanation is sought; this contrasts with the proximate cause.
• Proximate Cause: In a chain of cause and effect, the event nearest to the event whose explanation is being sought.
• Necessary and Sufficient Conditions: The relationship between two statements when one statement is true if and only if another statement is true.