Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Alderfer’s ERG theory identifies three types of needs:

• Existence: Material security.
• Relatedness: Good relationships, love, and friendship.
• Growth: Opportunities for self-development.

All needs can be present simultaneously. The frustration-regression hypothesis states that the more the satisfaction of higher-level needs is frustrated, the more important lower-level needs become.

Situational Leadership and Task Maturity

Situational characteristics, specifically the ability and willingness of subordinates, determine the level of task maturity. This results in four leadership groups:

• Telling: Employee is incapable, unwilling, and unconfident.
• Selling: Employee is incapable, willing, and confident.
• Supporting: Employee is capable,

Collective Bargaining and Agreements

Collective Agreements: These are key sources of labor law, governed by the principle of non-interference by the State in autonomous affairs and the principle of collective autonomy.

Basis: The fact of being workers puts individuals in a position where they cannot truly negotiate terms imposed on them. Protecting the right to collective bargaining redresses this imbalance of power and helps achieve fair outcomes.

Competition Law as an Impediment: Competition law can act as an impediment to the expression of a collective voice via collective agreements. This is a known problem in Article 101 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). The solution is found by exempting some labor market transactions... Continue reading "Collective Labor Law, Trade Unions, and Labor Rights" »

Public Speaking

A Well-Structured Talk

• Thorough subject knowledge
• Smart and professional appearance
• Careful preparation
• Good eye contact
• An enthusiastic attitude
• Strong voice
• Creative use of visuals
• Expansive body language

Transitional Phrases

• To start off, then
• To move on to my next point
• To go back to what I was saying
• To turn now to a different matter
• To say a bit more about that
• To give you an example of what I mean
• To digress for a moment
• To sum up, then

Techniques to Maximize Voice Use

• Rhetorical questions
• Dramatic contrast
• Tripling
• Repetition
• Simplification
• Emphasis
• Softening
• Machine gunning

Ethical Business Practices

Key Terms

• Ethical: Relating to beliefs about what is morally right and wrong.
• Activist: A person who believes strongly in political or social change

Social Darwinism

Social Darwinism is the false idea that nature legitimises the oppression of the socially weaker by the stronger. It is based on the Darwinian theory of evolution, which states that the fittest individuals survive and reproduce. However, Social Darwinism ignores the fact that humans are not simply animals, and that we have developed moral and ethical values that prevent us from acting in a purely selfish manner.

The Role of Aggression and Violence in the Evolution of Species

Aggression among members of the same species is fundamental for the conservation of the species. For example, fighting between rivals helps to determine who is the strongest and most fit to reproduce. In the case of humans, aggression has also played a role... Continue reading "Philosophical Implications of Evolutionism" »

Stone Age Questions and Answers

Short Questions and Answers

• Which describes one way that early hunter-gatherers got food? They used tools to kill animals.
• What was the main unit of Stone Age culture? A small group or band of people.
• Which is a kind of technology used by Stone Age humans? Fire.
• How do nomads live? They travel from place to place with the seasons.
• Which group was the first to bury its dead? Neanderthals.
• What is the term for the belief that spirits fill the natural world? Animism.
• What happens during a migration? People move from their homeland to a new place.
• What is a clan? A group of families with a common ancestor.
• Why did modern humans have to adapt? They had to adjust to new environments.
• How did the world change when modern humans

Vocabulary Builder: Essential Words and Definitions

Cosy: Warm and comfortable.

Endangered: Said about species of animals in danger of extinction.

Fierce: Violent and savage.

Hectic: Extremely active.

Illogical: Something with a lack of logic.

Impossible: Something that cannot be done or achieved.

Inconvenient: Something that causes problems or difficulties.

International: Involving many nationalities.

Irrelevant: Something not important in a particular case.

Lifelong: Said about something that lasts or is supposed to remain forever.

Overpopulated: That has more people than permitted or advisable.

Tame: Change from wild to domesticate made by humans.

Unfair: Something that is not honest or fair.

Wild: Said of an animal living in its natural environment.

Phrases

The Nature of Knowledge: Senses and Reason

Reason and the senses are two primary "instruments" we use to experience reality. Thanks to our senses, we are aware of what is going on around us, which helps us to survive.

Sensitive knowledge is the result of processing all this information in our minds.

Sensitive Knowledge: Perception & Sensation

The information that reaches our senses is made up of sensations and perception. Sensations are psycho-physical phenomena. They occur when our sensory organs are stimulated. Perception is the interpretation of sensations captured by our senses. Both sensations and perception are selective.

The Role of Reason in Human Cognition

Reason, as a cognitive faculty, is exclusive to human beings. Only human beings... Continue reading "Human Understanding: Senses, Reason, and Knowledge Theories" »

   1.Argument: a set Of propositions consisting of premises and a conclusion.Deduction: Arguments where the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises.Induction: Arguments where the conclusion follows from the premises with some degree of Probability. Validity: when It is impossible for a deductive argument to have all true premises and a false Conclusion. Soundness: when a Deductive argument is valid and all the premises are actually true.Strength: when The conclusion is probable/likely relative to the premises in an inductive Argument. Reliability: when An inductive argument is strong and all the premises are actually true.It is important because is like the basis of Everything. It brings some structure of were to start the argument,

Machiavelli, Natural Law, and Virtù

Niccolò Machiavelli introduces a realism closer to Aristotle than to Plato, but he is also developing and applying the Stoic and Christian idea of natural law.

In Machiavelli’s hands, natural law becomes elevated above divine law and connected to the notion of good ruling or ability, known as virtù.

Defining the State

What is the State?

According to Velasquez: “The state is the highest authority in a society, with a legal power to define the public interest and enforce its definition” (520).

Contract Theory and Political Legitimacy

Contract Theory is one of the most influential theories in modern political philosophy. It posits that a healthy government and state derive their legitimacy from an agreement... Continue reading "Key Concepts in Modern Political Philosophy and Theory" »