Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

A human action can be considered as a moral action whether it has the following characteristics:

1. It is done by adjusting to a code or a set of moral rules and values. These rules and values designate what should be considered as morally good or bad, advisable or inadvisable, etc. In the next section we will study what the moral values and rules are.
2. This moral code should not be imposed by the society to the people, but each individual must be free to choose it. For example, I must be free to choose whether or not euthanasia is something acceptable from a moral point of view. For this reason, morality is above all an individual matter related to the autonomy of each person.
3. Being free when acting is something extremely important when assessing

John Stuart Mill: A Pioneer of Liberalism

John Stuart Mill, a nineteenth-century philosopher, was a fresh mind who injected new ideas into England and the history of Liberalism and Social Theory. In his seminal work, On Liberty, he assumes a different angle when looking at the structure of our society, ranging from the modern mindset to government rule.

The Sovereignty of the Individual

John Stuart Mill was a champion of individual liberty. He posited that no human being should play master to another. Furthermore, every human being is considered sovereign over his or her own body. An individual is at liberty to do anything with their body, provided it does not interfere with others. This is deemed to provide utility to the individual and society... Continue reading "John Stuart Mill: Individual Liberty and Social Theory" »

Cultural Relativism

A. One common moral theory covered by Gensler is Cultural Relativism. Many people fall back on this position when confronted about ethical dilemmas. Define “good” according to Cultural Relativism (2 pts.). Explain how someone would employ Cultural Relativism in addressing an ethical dilemma by giving a concrete example (3 pts.). Gensler presents several counterarguments against Cultural Relativism, however. Present one of those arguments in detail as you understand it (5 pts.).

Definition of 'Good' (2 pts.)

1. According to Cultural Relativism, “good” is what is socially approved.

Concrete Example (3 pts.)

2. Concrete example = My girlfriend and I want to move in together but my parents are very religious and don’t believe... Continue reading "Cultural Relativism & Subjectivism: Definitions, Examples, Objections" »

S173 CA 2006: Duty to Exercise Independent Judgment

Under Section 173 of the Companies Act 2006, directors must exercise independent judgment. A primary authority for this is Fulham Football Club v Cabra Estates.

S174 CA 2006: Duty of Reasonable Care and Skill

This duty is divided into an objective test and a subjective test:

• Objective Test: The relevant skills and experience expected of an ordinary director.
• Subjective Test: The relevant skills and experience expected of that particular director.

Key cases include Re Brazilian Rubber Plantation and Re Denham.

S175 CA 2006: Duty to Avoid Conflicts of Interest

Directors are under a duty to avoid relevant conflicts of interest. This principle was examined in Aberdeen Railway v Blaikie Brothers.

Aberdeen

Lease vs License: Key Legal Distinctions

Application of Berrisford v Mexfield

However, Berrisford v Mexfield only applies to individual leases and not corporate bodies or commercial leases. As such, it is very clear that the Supreme Court (SC) is trying to save individual, domestic, and residential leases to avoid injustice.

In Southwork Corporation v Walker, the courts looked at the intention of the parties to determine whether they were trying to create a lease or license, which again prevents injustice.

Requirement for Exclusive Possession

Denying Exclusive Possession

The second requirement is that there must be exclusive possession. Mostly, landlords will try to deny the occupiers exclusive possession as it would make them the actual owner of... Continue reading "Lease vs License: Exclusive Possession and Legal Precedents" »

The Importance of Having Goals in Life

All humans have goals to accomplish in life. Some are achievable, and some are not, but we should always have hope. It doesn't matter if you can perform it or not. These are the goals that fill us with hope and faith. Also, they guide us and show which path to follow. Without those goals, we could not define exactly where we wanted to go. In this text, I will explain what my goals are and why it is good to have goals in life, and we will realize that life would be meaningless without them.

My Primary Goal: Becoming a Nurse

First, I always thought that having goals in life is good, and I have so many, but today I am going to mention the one which is the most important one. It's something I want to be in the... Continue reading "Achieving Aspirations: The Significance of Setting Life Goals" »

The Impact of Music on Emotional and Mental Well-being

Music plays a vital role in people's emotional and mental well-being. It has the power to awaken deep and positive emotions. Listening to pleasant songs can reduce stress and anxiety, improve your mood, and provide an escape from daily worries.

Music and Cultural Connection

Music promotes connection and understanding between different people and cultures. The diversity in musical styles allows people to explore and appreciate different cultural and social points of view, fostering empathy and mutual respect, and helping to build more tolerant and inclusive societies.

The Psychological Benefits of Music

Music has a positive effect on psychological development, especially in children. Studies... Continue reading "Music, Mindset, and Words: Keys to Well-being & Positivity" »

Exclusive Possession and the Bruton Tenancy

In the case of Bruton v London and Quadrant Housing Trust, a non-proprietary lease was granted based on exclusive possession, even though the landlord did not have a legal estate in the land and was only a licensee. Martin Dixon, in his evaluation of Bruton, stated that a non-proprietary lease based on exclusive possession is actually a licence. However, the House of Lords was trying to protect the occupiers under a lease, therefore establishing this concept.

Nonetheless, despite having exclusive possession, many still do not acquire a lease in situations such as:

• Family circumstances, due to the absence of an intention to create legal relations.
• Employees who only have exclusive possession as a requirement

Critical Thinking & Argumentation

What is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking is about examining information from any source, evaluating its value and relevance, and effectively applying it to your studies.

Understanding Arguments

An argument, in the context of critical thinking, goes beyond mere disagreement. It involves presenting reasons in a structured way to persuade you of a specific viewpoint.

• Arguments are supported by reasons.
• Arguments aim to be persuasive and convince you of a particular position, potentially refuting or disproving opposing views.

Key Concepts in Critical Thinking

Assumptions

An assumption is an unstated reason that is necessary for the conclusion to be valid.

Credibility

Credibility refers to whether a claim or piece... Continue reading "Critical Thinking & Argumentation: A Guide" »

René Descartes is introduced into modern philosophy being the father of rationalism.

René is born in 1596 and dies in 1650

Descartes was a dualist. He affirmed that there are two substances: that of the body that possesses the attribute of extension, and that of the soul that possesses the attribute of thought.

There was a new worldview, this change implied a break with the old religious beliefs and the knowledge of other philosophers of the new planetary system was added, coming to the theory that the center of it was the sun. Because of this, Rene wanted to build new knowledge, that is, a new world for him.

Descartes attributes to the matter a creative force of its own, and considers the mechanical movement as the vital manifestation of matter... Continue reading "Rene Descartes: The Father of Rationalism" »