Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Meaning as Reference/Denotation (R/D)

Core Tenets

• We stress the role of the referent/denotation as the main component of a linguistic expression’s meaning.
• Metalanguage explanations of meaning are seen as the names of the referents of the object language term.

Example: "In Sydney, the bridge means Harbour Bridge." "Bridge" means what it refers to, but if we don't know the context, then we could say that "bridge" in general has its denotation.

Advantages

• It identifies meaning with non-linguistic objects in the world. If we run out of words, we can do this (by pointing at it).
• The referents are taken from representations projected by the speaker.

Problems

• Abstract nouns and adjectives lack a clear referent.
• A single referent can be referred to by many

Utilitarianism

Jeremy Bentham is the founder of utilitarianism, or “the ethics of happiness.” When Bentham was a guest on my Almanac page, he outlined his moral science of hedonism. What is hedonism?

"The community is a fictitious body, composed of the individual persons who are considered as constituting as it were its members. The interests of the community then is, what? -- the sum of the interests of the several members who compose it."

- Jeremy Bentham (1748 -- 1832)

• Society is just the sum of individuals in that society.
• For individuals, right actions are those which lead to happiness and avoid pain.
• When it comes to “goods,” more is preferred to less. “Most is best” – this is the idea of maximization.
• Majority rule is the basis

Imagery and Symbolism

The Color Green

Blake returns to his image of the village green, which represents:

• Growth, fertility, and spring.
• The importance of play, and therefore of imagination, in human life.
• Freedom from the rule or demands of an authority figure.

Here, the green symbolizes the children's life and freedom, which makes the Nurse 'green' with envy. At the same time, green is associated with nausea and sourness, which indicates both the corruption of the Nurse's mind and, perhaps, the corruption of childhood innocence.

The Nurse: Nurturing Capacity and Control

The image of the Nurse is used to represent the caring and nurturing capacity within human beings. This capacity can be used to protect the freedom of what is carefree, innocent, and... Continue reading "William Blake's "Nurse's Song" Analysis: Themes and Symbolism" »

Ancient Philosophy: Plato and Aristotle

Plato

Plato, known for his Theory of Forms, believed in a dualistic reality. He distinguished between the constantly changing world of appearances (shadows) and the permanent realm of Forms, which are only accessible through reason. As a rationalist, he argued that knowledge is innate and discovered through reason, not sensory experience.

Aristotle

Aristotle, Plato's student, emphasized the importance of empirical observation and logic. He developed the syllogism, a system of deductive reasoning, and believed that knowledge is acquired through observation and logical analysis.

Medieval Philosophy: Aquinas

Thomas Aquinas, a prominent figure in medieval philosophy, sought to reconcile faith and reason. He argued... Continue reading "A Philosophical Journey: From Plato to Kant" »

The Rise of Cosmetic Surgery

In recent years, the number of people undergoing cosmetic surgery to improve their appearance has increased significantly. According to Block and Sarwer (2013), "In 2011, 13.8 million cosmetic surgery and minimally invasive treatments were performed in the United States, an 87% increase in such treatments since 2000. The vast majority of these treatments were minimally invasive procedures."

Individuals who undergo these procedures are often influenced by evolutionary theories of physical attractiveness. Many seek to look younger or healthier, often disregarding the inherent risks of surgery. Conversely, some individuals reject the pressure to conform to beauty standards, choosing to embrace their natural physical... Continue reading "The Impact of Cosmetic Surgery on Social and Career Success" »

Spanish Enlightenment: Education as the Cornerstone of Progress

Antecedents

Francis Bacon and Empiricism

The basis of Empiricism is that our knowledge comes from experience. It does not come from the principles and dogmas of authorities. Bacon wrote The New Atlantis, a utopia based on the practice of the new science of the House of Salomon.

René Descartes and Rationalism

Born in France, he passed away in Sweden. "I think, therefore I am." The "mind" or "reason" was the main source of truth. Only facts that are clear to the mind are true (rationalism). As a result, the "rational ethic" appeared.

Isaac Newton

He was English. His Universal Law of Gravitation, published in 1687, changed the conception of the Universe. The world can be explained through... Continue reading "Spanish Enlightenment: Education and Societal Transformation Under Charles III" »

Essential Vocabulary Definitions

• Audacious: Willing to take risks; daring, showing disrespect or lack of courtesy.
• Confiscate: To seize, by force if necessary; to take possession of.
• Conscientious: Thorough; careful; honest; principled.
• Depict: To give a picture of; to describe.
• Embark: To go on board a ship or airplane at the start of a voyage.
• Inkling: A slight suspicion; a vague idea.
• Lackadaisical: Showing little spirit or enthusiasm.
• Mutiny: Deliberate refusal to obey orders given by those in command, especially by sailors. To rebel openly against a commander.
• Pilfer: To steal repeatedly small amounts or things that are of little value.
• Profusion: A plentiful supply; a great or generous amount. Given or occurring in generous amounts; abundant.
• Prudent:

The Four Types of Poverty

• Material poverty
• Poverty of soul
• Poverty of spirit
• Poverty of addiction

Four Causes of Hunger

• Corruption
• Foreign loans
• Land degradation
• Politics

Three Levels of Subsidiarity

• State
• Parish/County
• Community

Three Abortion Methods

• Abortifacient drugs
• Suction aspiration
• Salt poisoning

Eight Fundamental Rights

1. Right to life
2. Moral and cultural rights
3. Right to worship
4. Right to choose one's state of life
5. Economic rights
6. Right to meet and associate
7. Right to immigrate
8. Political rights

Key Definitions

Equality

In theology, the dignity of each human in comparison to all other humans.

Personalistic Norm

The principle that maintains that a person is to be treated as a unique individual and never as a means to another's end.

Subsidium

Meaning "give help"; an attitude... Continue reading "Foundations of Catholic Social Teaching and Human Rights" »

Unit 4: Transcendentalism and the Poetic Imaginary

Origins of Transcendentalism

While Ralph Waldo Emerson popularized the term, it was Immanuel Kant who originally coined it. Transcendentalism stands as America’s most original 19th-century philosophical, aesthetic, and literary movement, distinct from mere materialism.

Core Philosophy and Individualism

The movement began with Emerson’s lecture series Nature (1836), followed by his essay The American Scholar. Central to this philosophy is Individualism: the belief that each person must develop an original relationship with the universe and their own interpretation of life. These texts also reflect an awareness of Native American perspectives.

Key Tenets

• Self-Reliance and Optimism: Human actions

Meeting Details

• Purpose of meeting: Review of passenger feedback and operational policies
• Date/time: [Insert Date/Time]
• Present: [List attendees in alphabetical order by surname]
• Chairperson: [Insert Name]

Meeting Agenda and Discussion